OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


TWENTIETH  CENTURY  TEXT-BOOKS 


EDITED   BY 


A.  F.  NIGHTINGALE,  PH.D.,  LL.D. 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS,    COOK    COUNTY,    ILLINOIS 


EHEINSTEIN. 


TWENTIETH   CENTURY   TEXT-BOOKS 


A    HISTORY    OF    THE 
MIDDLE    AGES 


BY 

DANA   CARLETON   MUNRO 

PROFESSOR  OF  EUROPEAN  HISTORY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


WITH  MAPS  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW    YORK 
D.    APPLETON    AND   COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1902 
BY  D.  APPLETON  AND   COMPANY 


3H 

i 


•v\£    ,5  1  0  6 


PREFACE 


IN  this  text-book  three  subjects  have  been  emphasized: 
first,  the  work  of  the  Christian  Church,  the  greatest  of 
the  civilizing  agencies ;  second,  the  debt  which  we  owe  to 
the  Byzantine  and  Arabic  civilizations ;  third,  the  life  of  the 
times.  While  endeavoring  to  subordinate  mere  facts  and 
dates,  I  have  intended  to  introduce  those  with  which  a 
pupil  should  be  familiar. 

It  is  impossible  to  name  the  sources  to  which  I  am  in- 
debted; as  I  have  formed  my  opinions  gradually,  during 
thirteen  years  in  which  I  have  been  engaged  in  studying 
and  teaching  medieval  history.  In  preparing  the  maps  I 
have  profited  greatly  by  the  admirable  Oxford  Historical 
Atlas  of  Modern  Europe.  Dr.  A.  F.  Nightingale,  of  Chicago, 
Mr.  F.  L.  Thompson,  of  New  York,  and  Dr.  Caroline  Colvin, 
one  of  my  students,  have  read  the  whole  manuscript  and 
made  many  helpful  suggestions.  Prof.  E.  H.  Castle  and 
Dr.  A.  C.  Howland,  of  the  Teachers  College,  Dr.  E.  A. 
Singer,  of  Philadelphia,  Prof.  Wilfred  H.  Munro,  of  Brown 
University,  Prof.  E.  P.  Cheyney,  and  Dr.  W.  E.  Lingelbach, 
of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  have  read  one  or  more 
chapters.  I  wish  to  thank  each  one  of  these  scholars,  in- 
dividually, for  the  interest  they  have  taken  and  the  aid 

853511 


vi  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

they  have  given  me.  Prof.  J.  H.  Robinson,  of  Columbia 
University,  has  read  all  the  proofs  and  suggested  many  im- 
provements. My  wife  has  assisted  me,  as  in  all  my  work, 
and  the  text  has  been  changed  constantly  to  meet  her  help- 
ful comments.  For  one  chapter  I  have  been  especially 
fortunate  in  having  the  criticisms  of  Mr.  Henry  C.  Lea. 
It  is  fitting  that  I  should  mention  him  separately.  To 
praise  his  scholarship  would  be  a  work  of  supererogation 
on  my  part ;  but  by  my  study  in  his  library  and  observa- 
tion of  his  methods  of  working  I  have  learned  more  than 
from  any  other  source.  For  ten  years  I  have  profited  by 
his  kindness  and  stimulating  example. 

DANA  CARLETON  MTOBO. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I. — INTRODUCTION 1 

II. — THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT     ....  9 

III.— THE  CHURCH 25 

IV. — THE  INVASIONS 33 

_V.— FEUDALISM 40 

VI.— THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM  (TO  1122) 51 

VII.— THE  KINGDOM  OF  FRANCE  (TO  1108)       ....  64 

VIII.— ENGLAND  (TO  1135) 74 

IX.— THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  (750-1095) 86 

X.— THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE 95 

XI.— THE  CRUSADES 106 

XII. — THE  MONASTIC  ORDERS 122 

XIII. — LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES  (TWELFTH  AND  THIRTEENTH  CEN- 
TURIES)      135 

XIV. — LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  (TWELFTH  AND  THIRTEENTH  CEN- 
TURIES)   148 

XV. — SCHOOLS  AND  UNIVERSITIES 160 

XVI. — THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  TWELFTH  AND  THIRTEENTH  CEN- 
TURIES       169 

XVII.— GERMANY  AND  ITALY.        .    ' 184 

XVIII.— FRANCE  (1108-1314) 204 

XIX.— ENGLAND  (1135-1327) 214 

XX. — THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS 224 

INDEX 235 

vii 


MAPS    AND    TABLES 


PAGES 

Roman  Empire,  395  A.  D. facing  1 

Europe,  Eighth  Century 7 

Treaty  of  Verdun 22 

Europe,  962  A.  D 53 

England,  878  A.  D 77 

Byzantine  Empire,  1100  A.  D 99 

The  Crusading  States 112 

Monasteries  in  France       .        .        . 127 

Italy,  1160  A.  D 188 

Swiss  Cantons 200 

English  Possessions  in  France 209 

Spanish  Peninsula,  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries        .        .  227 

Descendants  of  Charles  the  Great    .        .        .        .        .        .        .24 

Kings  of  Germany,  887-1125 62 

Popes,  795-1124 62,63 

Kings  of  France,  843-1108 73 

Kings  of  the  Family  of  Egbert 85 

Emperors  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  717-1204         .        .        .     104,  105 

Kings  of  Jerusalem,  1100-1187 121 

Popes,  1124-1303 180,  181 

Guelfs  and  Hohenstaufens 203 

ix 


ILLUSTKATIONS 


PAGE 

Rheinstein frontispiece 

Cathedral  and  Baptistery,  Torcello facing  4 

Facsimile  of  Merovingian  Writing  .......  5 

Facsimile  of  Carolingian  Writing .        .  11 

Seal  of  Charles  the  Great 13 

Seal  of  Lewis  the  Pious 18 

Charles  the  Bald 21 

Old  St.  Peter's 26 

Bishop 29 

Boat  found  at  Nydam  in  Schleswig 35 

Plaque  of  Gold,  representing  Northern  Deities       ....  37 

Carolingian  Emperor 43 

Stone  Hurler 46 

Otto  the  Great  and  his  Wife  Edith .        .        .        .       .        .        .54 

German  Tapestry,  Tenth  to  Twelfth  Century 58 

Part  of  a  Charter  of  Hugh  Capet 68 

Seal  of  Henry  I 71 

Fibula  found  in  Abingdon 75 

Arab  Horn 88 

Arab  Dagger 90 

Mosque  of  Cordova,  Interior facing  91 

Arab  Coin 92 

Greek  Emperor 96 

St.  Mark's,  Venice facing  97 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople facing  102 

Duke  Robert  of  Normandy 109 

Coin  of  Bohemond 114 

zi 


Hi  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

PAGE 

Coin  of  Dandolo 116 

Costumes,  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries  .        .        .      facing  119 

Cloisters  of  Moissac 125 

Pilgrim 128 

Letter-Carrier 132 

Plan  of  Castle 136 

Chillon facing  137 

Ladies'  Costumes 138 

Statue  representing  Lady 140 

Knight,  Thirteenth  Century 142 

Group  of  Chessmen,  Thirteenth  Century 143 

Tournament 145 

Plan  of  Manor,  German  village  of  Kerpen 150 

Arms  of  Paris ' 153 

Scene  in  a  Shop 155 

Belfry,  Bordeaux facing  157 

Medieval  Plaything 158 

Norman  School 161 

Seal  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  Reverse 165 

Seal  of  a  Doctor,  University  of  Paris 166 

Thirteenth  Century  Chessman 171 

Crozier  of  the  Thirteenth  Century 173 

Cathedral,  Pisa facing  174 

Church  of  St.  Francis,  Assisi facing  179 

Statue  of  Frederick  Barbarossa 187 

Henry  the  Lion  and  his  Wife  Matilda 192 

Seal  of  the  Widow  of  Otto  IV 194 

Seal  of  the  City  of  Paris .  205 

Charter  of  St.  Louis,  with  Seals 207 

Cathedral,  Amiens facing  208 

St.  Louis 212 

Marguerite  of  Provence 212 

Court  of  the  Lions,  Alhambra facing  228 

Wooden  Door  of  Church  in  Iceland                 ...                .  230 


MEDIEVAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  I 
Introduction 

IN  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  the  Roman 
Empire  extended  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  to 
the  Eiver  Euphrates   on  the   east.      On  the 

north  ifc  was  bounded  by  the  Ehine  and  the 

Danube ;  on  the  south  by  the  Sahara ;  Britain 
and  Egypt  were  the  extreme  outposts.  Throughout  this 
vast  extent  of  territory  every  free  man  was  a  Roman  citi- 
zen, Latin  was  the  official  language,  and  Christianity  the 
state  religion.  All  the  government  was  centralized  in  the 
emperor,  whose  will  was  law.  Moreover,  the  different  por- 
tions of  the  empire  were  not  held  together  by  sheer  brute 
force  or  by  the  presence  of  armies ;  the  people  were  proud 
to  be  Romans  and  despised  all  non-Romans.  Their  fore- 
fathers had  been  under  the  sway  of  Rome  for  three  hun- 
dred years  and  had  shared  in  the  benefits  of  the  imperial 
rule.  Good  roads  and  an  excellent  postal  service  had  en- 
couraged commerce  and  travel.  Everywhere  the  people 
had  sought  to  imitate  the  customs  and  fashions  of  the 
capital.  The  whole  Roman  world  had  been  unified. 

There  was  one  Church,1  of  which  all  Christians  were 

1  Although  Christians  realized  that  there  was  but  one  Church,  the 
word  church  was  used  in  the  middle  ages  with  several  different  mean- 
ings, just  as  it  is  at  the  present  day.  The  following  definitions  may  be 
noted  :  a  building  set  apart  for  Christian  worship  ;  the  group  of  Chris- 

1 
« 


2  ,    ..  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

m-embers,  ,  Its,  organization  was  similar  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
;nia,n  'Empire.  In  eg^h  city  there  was  a  bishop  assisted  by 

Organization  of    Priests-      In    tne    cnief    citJ    of    eacn    province 

the  Christian  there  was  an  archbishop  or  metropolitan,  who 
was  the  ruler  of  the  Church  in  that  province. 
He  summoned  the  bishops  frequently  to  councils  in  which 
were  discussed  matters  relating  to  the  general  welfare.  In 
this  way  the  Church  became  centralized  and  strong.  Above 
the  archbishops  were  the  patriarchs,  who  were  the  bishops 
of  the  most  important  churches.  Four  were  recognized  as 
having  preeminence — Jerusalem,  Borne,  Antioch,  and  Alex- 
andria. As  Rome  was  the  only  patriarchate  situated  in  the 
west,  it  had  no  rival  when  the  western  part  of  the  empire 
became  separated  from  the  eastern.  Its  bishop  was  seldom 
called  the  Patriarch  of  Rome,  but  instead  the  term  Pope 
was  used.  In  the  middle  ages  he  was  recognized  as  the 
supreme  head  of  the  Church  to  which  all  Christians  in  the 
west  of  Europe  belonged. 

The  unity  of  the  empire,  but  not  the  unity  of  the 
Church,  was  destroyed  in  the  fifth  century  by  migrations. 
For  five  hundred  years  the  Romans  and  the 
mi  mtionT  Germans  had  been  learning  to  know  each  other. 
Many  of  the  latter  had  been  brought  into  the 
empire  as  slaves  in  the  days  when  Rome  had  been  invin- 
cible. Later  thousands  had  fought  in  the  Roman  armies, 
or  had  received  permission  to  settle  and  defend  the  unoc- 
cupied lands  along  the  northern  boundary.  In  the  fifth 
century  whole  nations  invaded  the  western  provinces,  es- 
tablishing German  kingdoms  in  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain, 
and  Africa.  They  did  not  come  to  destroy  the  cities  or 
devastate  the  country,  but  to  secure  homes  for  themselves. 

tian  believers  in  any  locality  ;  the  collective  body  of  Christians  in  the 
whole  world ;  the  order  of  the  clergy,  including  bishops,  priests,  dea- 
cons, and  monks ;  the  aggregate  of  ecclesiastical  influence  and  author- 
ity. It  is  impossible  to  avoid  using  the  word  with  different  meanings, 
but  it  is  important  to  distinguish  the  exact  meaning  in  each  case. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

The  population  of  the  Eoman  Empire  had  been  decreasing 
for  centuries,  and  a  large  part  of  the  land  in  the  west  was 
uncultivated.  There  was  ample  room  for  these  newcomers, 
and  in  many  places  they  established  themselves  as  masters 
with  comparatively  little  bloodshed.  The  city  of  Rome 
suffered  most  severely,  but  even  there  the  churches  were 
spared,  for  the  Germans  who  sacked  Rome  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity. 

The  great  mass  of  the  inhabitants  suffered  little  imme- 
diate loss  from  the  German  conquests.  They  lived  under 
nearly  the  same  conditions  as  before,  but  they 
ka(l  new  masters.  The  Germans  were  less 
numerous  than  the  Romans,  and  never  at- 
tempted to  impose  their  own  civilization  upon  the  latter. 
They  set  up  tribal  governments,  but  they  allowed  the 
Romans  to  keep  their  own  law.  Living  in  intimate  and 
constant  association  with  each  other,  intermarriages  were 
common,  and  each  people  had  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  other.  By  the  eighth  century  the  fusion  of  the 
two  races  had  been  completed  and  had  produced  a  new 
civilization,  partly  Roman,  partly  German. 

In  all  the  lands  formerly  held  by  Rome,  except  Britain, 

the  language  spoken  by  the  people  was  a  modified  form  of 

Latin  (page  20),  and  not  German.    The  schools 

Eoman  which   existed   were    patterned  after   Roman 

contribution,  ,  .       .. 

methods,  and  Roman  text-books  were  used.  In 
the  arts  and  trades  there  had  been  a  great  decline  in  skill, 
but  men  still  sought  to  follow  the  Roman  models. 

In  its  laws  and  government,  however,  the  new  civiliza- 
tion was  German.     The  monarchy  was  elective,  and  public 

representative  assemblies  acted  as  a  check 
German  upon  the  king.  The  free  men  had  an  exalted 

contribution, 

idea  of  their  own  importance  and  trusted  to 
their  own  strength  to  obtain  justice.  The  law  regarded  an 
accusation  of  crime  as  an  attack  upon  a  man's  honor, 
against  which  he  must  defend  himself. 


4  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 

In  shaping  this  civilization  the  Church  had  had  a  very 

important  part.    The  only  learned  men  were  members  of  the 

clergy,  whose  aid  the  German  kings  were  com- 

Zf  pn?aT  °f  pelled  to  seek.  The  only  moral  restraint  which 
the  Church,  .  J  . 

the  rude  German  warriors  recognized  was  the 

authority  of  the  Church.  Consequently,  as  the  German 
conquerors  were  confronted  with  new  problems  for  which 
their  own  customs  supplied  no  solution,  they  turned  to  the 
clergy  for  advice.  The  latter  became  the  trusted  council- 
ors and  officials  in  each  of  the  new  kingdoms.  Their  serv- 
ices were  rewarded  by  extensive  grants  of  land,  and  the 
Church  became  very  wealthy. 

The  rulers  of  the  Franks,1  who  had  established  a  king- 
dom in  what  is  now  northern  France,  were  especially  noted 
as  benefactors  and  champions  of  the  Church. 
The  missionaries  sent  out  by  Rome  were  pro- 
tected by  them  and  aided  in  converting  the 
heathen  neighbors  of  the  Franks.  When  Pippin  super- 
seded the  "  do-nothing  "  Merovingian  2  ruler  he  sought  and 
obtained  from  the  Pope  a  decision  that  his  action  was 
right.  When  the  Lombards,  as  the  Germans  who  had  con- 
quered the  northern  part  of  Italy  were  ^called,  threatened  to 
wrest  Eome  from  the  Pope,  Pippin  conquered  them  and 
gave  a  large  portion  of  their  territory  to  the  Pope.  When 
the  Lombards  again  became  dangerous,  Pippin's  son, 
Charles  the  Great,  reconquered  them  and  confirmed  his 
father's  gift.  The  donations  of  Pippin  and  Charles  the 
Great  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Papal  States. 

In  addition  to  the  aid  given  to  the  missionaries  and  the 
subjugation  of  the  Lombards,  the  Franks  had  performed 
another  service  of  great  importance  to  Christian  Europe 

1  A  German  nation  which  had  formerly  dwelt  along  th«j  lower 
Rhine. 

5  Merovingian,  the  name  of  the  family  to  which  Clovis  and  all  the 
early  kings  belonged.  The  Merovingians  were  succeeded  by  the  Caro- 
dingian  family. 


3 


INTRODUCTION 


by  checking  the  advance  of  the  followers  of  Islam.  This 
religion  had  arisen  in  Arabia,  and  had  been  founded  by 
Mohammed,  who  died  in  632.  Its  most  im- 
p0rtant  precepts  were  a  belief  in  one  God  who 
had  determined  the  fate  of  every  human  being,  and  absolute 
obedience  to  His  prophet  Mohammed,  whose  commands 


[slam, 


- 

IN  CpT-,1,1  B  F  fV  S  E7«  TVS 

a.TVSXBAN/MG  s  EXT  U  chil,OeBe  R-rWriveC'S  S**" 


FACSIMILE  OF  MEROVINGIAN  WRITING. 

were  contained  in  the  Koran.  The  Arabs,  who  had  been 
merely  an  aggregation  of  tribes,  without  a  common  govern- 
ment or  a  common  religion,  became  a  nation  under  the 
theocratic  rule  of  Mohammed's  successors,  the  califs. 

Even  before  the  Prophet  died  his  followers  had  sought 
to  compel  others  to  accept  the  new  religion.  Within  a 
hundred  years  after  his  death  the  Mohamme- 
dans conquered  Persia,  India,  all  of  western 
Asia,  Egypt  and  the  whole  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  Spain,  and  part  of  southern  Gaul.  Everywhere 
they  gave  to  the  conquered  the  choice  between  the  Koran, 
tribute,  or  the  sword—  that  is,  they  must  either  embrace 
the  doctrines  of  Islam,  or  pay  tribute,  or  be  exterminated. 
The  fatalism  which  was  an  essential  part  of  their  creed 
2 


Conquests  of 
Islam  i 


6  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

had  made  them  almost  invincible  soldiers.  Each  war 
against  unbelievers  was  to  them  a  holy  war,  and  every 
Mohammedan  slain  in  battle  was  a  martyr  who  had  won 
paradise.  The  Prophet  had  commanded  that  all  booty 
should  be  divided  fairly  among  the  victors.  The  combina- 
tion of  enthusiastic  religion,  fatalism,  and  the  prospect  of 
booty  caused  Islam  to  be  adopted  eagerly  by  most  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  conquered  countries. 

The  triumphant  advance  of  the  Mohammedans  received 

its  first  great  check  at  Constantinople  in  717.     The  calif 

had  sent  an  army  of  eighty  thousand  men  and 

Constantino  le  a  ^ee^  °^  eighteen  hundred  vessels,  which  be- 
sieged the  city  by  land  and  sea  for  a  year- 
Then  the  army  suffered  a  disastrous  defeat  from  the  Bul- 
garians, who  had  come  to  the  aid  of  Constantinople.  This, 
together  with  the  lack  of  provisions,  compelled  the  Mo- 
hammedans to  retreat.  Their  fleet  was  wrecked  in  return- 
ing home,  and  it  is  said  that  only  thirty  thousand  men  and 
five  vessels  escaped  destruction.  Thus  Constantinople, 
by  its  brave  resistance,  had  saved  eastern  Europe  from 
subjugation  to  Islam.  For  three  hundred  and  fifty  years 
the  Mohammedans  did  not  again  attempt  to  capture  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

In  western  Europe  the  task  of  stemming  the  tide  of 

invasion  was  at  first  more  difficult,  as  there  was  no  great 

bulwark  like  Constantinople.     But  the  Franks 

west* iEthe  under  the  leadershiP  of  Charles  Martel  forced 
the  Mohammedans  to  retreat,  after  a  desperate 
battle  near  Tours  (732),  and  gradually  recovered  all  of 
Gaul.  They  did  this  the  more  easily  because  internal 
wars  were  sapping  the  strength  of  Islam,  so  that  the  Moors l 
in  Spain  ceased  to  be  a  great  danger  to  Christianity. 

The  invasions  of  the  Germans  and  Mohammedans  had 

1  A  mixed  race,  formed  by  the  intermarriage  of  Arabs  with  natives 
of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa. 


8  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

wrested  from  the  empire  all  of  its  provinces  except  the 
European  possessions  east  of  the  Adriatic  and  a  few  places 

in  Italy.  The  Mohammedan  conquests  were 
hivasilns,  separated  from  the  Christian  world  not  only  by 

a  difference  in  religion,  but  also  by  the  bar- 
riers of  language  and  customs,  for  the  conquerors  had  intro- 
duced everywhere  the  Arabic  language  and  their  own  Ori- 
ental mode  of  living.  In  the  countries  conquered  by  the 
Germans  there  were  many  different  races,  each  having 
its  own  dialect,  laws,  and  customs.  The  Franks  had  suc- 
ceeded in  conquering  many  of  the  other  races,  but  as  yet 
there  was  no  unity  of  feeling  except  the  bond  of  a  common 
religion.  If  they  were  to  survive  the  attacks  of  their  more 
barbarous  neighbors  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  be 
united  more  closely  and  become  more  civilized.  This  was 
the  work  of  Charles  the  Great. 

REFERENCES 

Emerton's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Boston, 
1892)  is  the  best  short  volume  on  the  subjects  included  in  this 
chapter.  Robinson's  History  of  Western  Europe  (Boston,  1903), 
ch.  ii-vi,  is  an  admirable  brief  summary. 


CHAPTER  II 

The  Empire  of  Charles  the  Great 

SUMMARY. — Charles  the  Great,  by  his  strong  personality,  was  able 
to  influence  his  subjects.  His  interest  in  education  led  him  to  adopt 
Roman  customs.  His  religious  zeal  brought  him  into  intimate  rela- 
tions with  the  papacy.  As  the  idea  of  a  world-wide  empire,  which  in- 
cluded all  Christians,  was  still  held  by  thoughtful  men,  Charles,  whose 
dominions  were  so  extensive,  was  the  logical  choice  for  the  position  of 
emperor.  His  coronation  brought  him  and  his  successors  into  still 
closer  association  with  the  Church.  While  he  lived  he  was  able  to  cen- 
tralize the  government  of  his  dominions  in  his  own  hands.  After  his 
death  the  elements  of  weakness  in  the  imperial  constitution,  especially 
the  German  principle  of  divisjon^led  to  the  rapid  decline  of  the  empire 
and  to  the  rise  of  separate  and  weak  kingdoms. 

CHARLES  was  large,  strong,  and  of  lofty  stature,  though 
not  disproportionately  tall.1  His  height  is  well  known  to 
. .  ,  have  been  seven  times  the  length  of  his  foot. 

Description  of  f  . 

Charles,  His  appearance  was  always  stately  and  digni- 

768-814,  £e(j  an(j  fas  whole  carriage  manly.  He  de- 
spised foreign  clothes,  however  splendid,  and  wore  the  na- 
tional costume  of  the  Franks.  This  consisted  of  a  linen 
shirt  and  linen  breeches,  and  over  these  a  tunic  fringed 
with  silk ;  hose  fastened  by  bands  covered  his  lower  limbs 
and  shoes  his  feet.  Over  all  he  flung  a  blue  cloak,  and  he 
always  wore  a  sword.  In  winter  he  added  a  coat  of  otter- 
or  marten-skin.  On  great  festivals  he  dressed  magnificently 
in  embroidered  clothes  and  shoes  bedecked  with  gems,  and 

1  The  description  is  taken  from  the  biography  of  Charles,  written 
by  his  friend  and  secretary,  Einhard^  Charles  is  the  only  man  of  his 
time  of  whom  such  a  full  description  has  been  preserved. 

9 


10  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

wore  a  diadem ;  but  on  other  days  his  dress  varied  little 
from  the  common  costume  of  wealthy  Franks. 

He  was  an  able,  fearless  general.  He  took  frequent 
exercise  on  horseback  and  in  hunting  and  often  practised 
swimming,  in  which  he  was  such  an  adept  that 
aracter,  ^Q^e  could  surpass  him.  Although  slow  to 
anger,  few  dared  to  meet  his  fiery  glances  when  he  was 
once  aroused.  He  was  temperate  in  eating  and  especially 
in  drinking,  but  he  complained  that  church  fasts  were 
injurious  to  his  health.  He  was  simple  in  his  habits  and 
loved  his  native  German  customs.  But  he  realized  that 
the  Koman  civilization  was  higher  and  better  than  the 
German  in  many  respects,  and  he  strove  to  borrow  from  it 
all  that  could  be  serviceable  to  the  Franks.  His  energy 
was  inexhaustible. 

He  was  a  ready  and  fluent  speaker  both  in  his  native 
tongue  and  in  Latin,  and  he  understood  Greek.  He  tried 
to  learn  to  write,  but  he  began  too  late  in  life 
^°  succeed  in  accomplishing  much  more  than 
his  own  signature.  He  was  a  zealous  student, 
delighting  especially  in  mathematics,  astronomy,  and  the- 
ology. He  established  many  schools  in  his  kingdom  and 
took  a  keen  interest  in  the  progress  of  the  students.  His 
own  children  were  carefully  educated  under  the  direction 
of  Alcuin,1  and  Charles  often  studied  with  them.  He 
gathered  together  at  his  court  all  the  most  learned  men 
of  the  age  and  sought  their  aid  and  instruction.  He  was 
active  in  reforming  and  enriching  the  Church  services  and 
paid  special  attention  to  the  singing,  which  he  often  di- 
rected in  person.  Such  is  the  description  given  of  him  by 
his  contemporaries  and  especially  by  Einhard,  his  secretary. 

>  l  Alcuin,  born  about  735,  was  educated  at  York,  England,  and 
became  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time.  He  was  persuaded  by 
Charles  to  become  the  latter's  teacher.  Teacher  and  pupil  lived  in 
close  friendship  until  Alcuin's  death  in  804.  See  West,  Alcuin  (New 
-York,  1893). 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT  11 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  his  most  important  work  was  the 

fusing  of  t^fthest  elements  in,  the  t  w0,.ciYilkaiionsT,,Roman 
an9  German.  He  did  not  copy  indiscrimi- 
nately, but  he  chose  wisely  the  features  of  the 

Roman  culture  which  seemed  most  desirable  for  his  people. 

This  course  resulted  in  a  profound   influence   upon   the 

future  of  the  Germans. 

INCPNTCAPL 

DIALOGIil'II 

j        (JBIODuLTiTuDobooDi 

OCCURRrT* 

rr>  cfefcTrocLr- 


J}          tlbtpuelLxm  duocf  ccojKicrn  <xb 

FACSIMILE  OF  CAROLINGIAN  WRITING. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  the  intimate  relations  of  the 
popes  and  the  early  Frankish  kings  have  been  mentioned. 
His  connection  During  the  reign  of  Charles  the  alliance  be- 
withthe  came  much  closer.  He  had  conquered  the 

papacy,  Lombards  and  had  given  a  part  of  their  king- 

dom to  the  Pope.  He  insisted  upon  the  adoption  of  Chris- 
tianity by  the  Saxons  whom  he  conquered.  In  his  king- 
dom, in  pursuance  of  his  educational  policy,  he  had  done 
much  to  strengthen  the  Church,  from  whose  officers  he 
drew  his  teachers.  He  increased  its  wealth  by  com- 
manding the  payment  of  tithes  by  his  subjects,  and  he 
himself  set  the  example.  When  the  people  of  Rome 
rebelled  and  the  Pope  was  compelled  to  flee  from  the 


12  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

city,  Charles  put  down  the  rebellion  and  gave  the  Pope 
protection. 

The  grandeur  of  the  Koman  Empire  still  impressed  the 

minds  of  men.     The  fourth  empire  in  the   prophecy  of 

Daniel l  was  believed  to  be  the  Koman,  which 

Prestige  of  the    wag  Destined  to   endure  till  the   end  of  the 

Koman  Lmpire, 

world.  Although  the  capital  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  Constantinople  and  the  empire  had  lost  much  of 
its  territory,  reverence  for  the  imperial  idea  had  never  been 
lost.  Men  believed  that  there  must  be  a  Roman  Empire 
and  could  not  conceive  of  the  world  without  one.  This 
idea  was  of  great  importance  and  influence  throughout  the 
middle  ages.  But  the  Greek  Empire  had  lost  prestige  in 
the  West,  as  its  power  was  no  longer  felt.  The  papacy 
wished  to  break  away  from  connection  with  it  because  it  was 
heretical.  Irene  was  now  Empress  of  Constantinople  ;  the 
Germans  considered  it  unfitting  that  a  woman  should  gov- 
ern, and  detested  her  for  her  crimes.  Charles  ruled  almost 
all  the  territory  in  the  West  which  formerly  had  been  under 
the  rule  of  Rome,  besides  much  that  had  never  been 
Roman. 

As  the  result  of  fifty  or  more  military  campaigns  con- 
ducted under  his  direction,  Charles  had  become  the  ruler 
What  the  em-  °^  a^  ^he  Germanic  nations  from  the  Baltic 
pire  of  Charles  Sea  on  the  north  to  the  city  of  Rome  on  the 
included.  south,  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  on  the  west  to 

the  Elbe  and  the  Saale  on  the  east.  "  He  so  largely  increased 
the  kingdom  of  the  Franks,  which  was  already  great  and 
strong  when  he  received  it  from  his  father's  hands,  that 
more  than  double  its  former  territory  was  added  to  it " 
(Einhard).  By  these  conquests  Charles  had  become  more 
than  the  king  of  any  nation  or  of  any  two  or  three  na- 
tions. On  the  boundaries  of  his  realm  he  was  the  nominal 
overlord  of  many  races  of  barbarians ;  these,  however,  were 

1  See  Daniel,  chap,  ii,  vv.  31-45. 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT 


13 


SEAL  OF  CHAELES. 


never  in  subjection,  except  when  overawed  by  a  strong 
military  force.  Most  of  the  kingdom  actually  under  his 
sway  was  occupied  by  Germans, 
who  were  divided  into  many  na- 
tions or  tribes,  differing  from  one 
another  in  language,  laws,  and  cus- 
toms. Some  were  civilized,  while 
others  were  almost  barbarous. 
Christianity  was  the  state  religion, 
but  in  many  districts  the  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity  were  scarcely 
known  and  seldom,  if  ever,  heeded. 
Among  the  Saxons  Charles  found 
it  necessary  to  forbid  human  sacri- 
fices to  the  pagan  divinities  and 
the  eating  of  the  bodies  of  witches. 

This  rule  over  men  of  many  nations,  occupying  such  widely 
extended  territory,  made  a  vivid  impression  on  the  minds 
of  his  subjects.  In  order  to  describe  his  power,  even  before 
he  was  crowned  emperor,  they  referred  to  it  as  imperial. 

It  seemed  fitting  that  the  king  who  ruled  the  imperial 
territory  should  be  crowned  emperor  at  the  ancient  capital. 
Consequently,  on  Christmas  day,  800,  as  Charles 
knelt  in  prayer  at  the  altar  of  old  St.  Peter's 
in  Eome,  the  Pope  suddenly  placed  upon  his 
head  the  imperial  crown,  and  the  people  shouted  joyously : 
"  To  Charles,  most  pious  and  august,  crowned  by  God,  the 
great  and  peace-loving  emperor,  be  life  and  victory ! " 

Thus  was  the  medieval  empire  founded,  and  Charles 
was  the  first  of  a  long  succession  of  emperors  which  was 
to  end  only  in  the  nineteenth  century.  But 
^is  contemporaries  did  not  realize  that  there 
had  been  any  new  creation ;  they  believed  that 
the  old  Eoman  Empire  was  still  in  existence  and  that 
Charles  was  the  direct  successor  of  Augustus,  Trajan,  and 
Constantine.  Furthermore,  in  the  opinion  of  his  contem- 


Coronation  of 
Charles. 


14  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

poraries  Charles  had  received  additional  importance  and 
power  by  the  coronation.  There  was  to  them  only  one 
emperor,  and  his  dignity  was  far  greater  than  that  of 
any  king.  He  was  thought  to  be  the  head  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church  in  all  secular  matters  as  the  Pope  was  in 
all  spiritual  matters.  As  a  matter  of  fact  this  never  was 
true;  there  were  always  Christian  countries  which  were 
not  included  in  the  empire.  Moreover,  the  title  did  not 
add  any  real  power ;  whatever  power  the  emperor  actually 
had  was  due  to  his  position  as  king.  The  empire  had  no 
territory,  no  subjects,  no  army,  no  revenues,  except  as  these 
were  supplied  by  the  territory,  subjects,  army,  and  reve- 
nues of  the  king  who  was  crowned  emperor.  These  facts 
must  be  borne  in  mind  whenever  the  empire  is  studied. 

Yet  Charles  believed  that  he  had  received  an  increase 
of  power  and  dignity  when  he  became  ruler  of  the  Koman 
Charles's  con-  Empire.  He  required  every  one  of  his  subject?* 
ceptionofhis  over  twelve  years  of  age  to  take  a  new  oath  o:f 
obedience  to  him,  and  in  this  oath  were  in- 
eluded  not  merely  the  duties  to  the  state,  but  also  th«j 
duties  to  God  ;  leading  a  godly  life,  protection  to  widows 
and  orphans  were  enjoined  in  the  same  manner  as  military 
service  or  obedience  to  the  game-laws.  Charles  believed 
that  as  emperor  he  was  the  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth, 
and  in  his  conscientious  zeal  confused  entirely  the  duties  of 
/the  state  and  of  the  Church.  This  confusion  is  character- 
jistic  of  the  whole  medieval  period. 

The  machinery  which  Charles  had  for  enforcing  these 
orders — that  is,  the  organization  of  the  administrative  sys- 
tem in  his  empire — was  very  different  from 
that  of  an?  m°dern  kingdom.  First,  there 
was  ncrrmperial  taxation.  Charles  secured  his 
income  mainly  from  his  private  estates,  which  were  merely 
large  farms  managed  for  his  benefit.  He  gave  much  per- 
sonal attention  to  the  care  of  his  property,  and  was  watch- 
ful lest  he  might  be  defrauded  of  some  of  the  grain  grown 


THE  EMPIRE  OF   CHARLES  THE  GREAT  15 

or  some  of  the  eggs  which  his  hens  laid.  In  fact,  some 
writers,  observing  the  attention  which  he  gave  to  these 
matters,  have  styled  him  "  only  a  German  farmer."  In  the 
second  place,  Charles  expected  and  received  gifts  each  year 
from  most  of  his  important  officials.  These  gifts  varied 
in  character  and  amount,  but  their  total  value  was  great. 
In  the  third  place,  Charles  exacted  fines  from  his  subjects 
when  they  were  negligent  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties  or  when  they  were  guilty  of  crimes.  From  these 
sources  and  from  the  spoils  of  war  the  imperial  treasury 
was  filled. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  expenses  for  the  empire  were 
very  small,  if  compared  with  those  of  a  modern  govern- 

ment.    There  was  little  or  no  expenditure  for 

the  army,  for  the  police,  for  internal  improve- 
ments, for  courts  of  justice,  or  for  education.  All  of  these 
functions  were  left  to  local  officials,  under  the  control  of 
the  central  government,  who  received  no  salary  from  the 
treasury. 

The  chief  among  these   were   the   counts,   who   were 
generally  chosen   from   the  most  powerful  families  resi- 

dent throughout  the  empire.  Sometimes  the 
officials  counts  ruled  over  cities  and  the  land  adjacent  ; 

sometimes  they  governed  larger  territories. 
The  most  important  were  those  on  the  frontiers,  who  were 
called  margraves.  It  was  their  especial  duty  to  protect  the 
empire  "ffbm"su3den  invasions.  Situated  at  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  center  of  power,  and  required  to  be  ready 
constantly  to  act  on  their  own  initiative,  they  were  given 
necessarily  a  large  amount  of  power  and  independence. 
The  counts  and  margraves  were  expected  to  maintain 
order  and  administer  justice  in  their  territories.  When  an 
army  was  required  they  levied  the  soldiers,  saw  that  they 
were  properly  equipped,  and  led  them  to  battle.  In  fact, 
the  whole  local  administration  of  the  government  was 
practically  in  the  hands  of  the  counts. 


V\A 


16  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

In  order  to  maintain  control  over  them  and  to  cen. 

tralize  the  government,  Charles  employed  special  agents, 

who  were  called  "  missi  dominici"  or  imperial 

Missi  dominicii  mi  i 

messengers.  These  were  sent  out  each  year  to 
the  various  districts  of  the  empire.  It  was  their  duty  to 
correct  the  mistakes  in  the  local  administration,  to  hear 
appeals  from  the  judgment  of  the  counts  or  margraves,  to 
make  known  special  laws  enacted  by  the  emperor,  and  in 
general  to  represent  his  authority.  Usually  two  missi  were 
sent  out  together  in  order  that  one  might  serve  as  a  check 
upon  the  other,  and  their  districts  were  changed  every 
year  in  order  to  prevent  collusion  with  the  local  counts. 
Ordinarily  one  of  the  missi  was  a  layman  and  the  other  a 
bishop  or  abbot. 

The  leading  members  of  the  clergy  played  an  important 
part  in  the  government.     They  held  large  properties,  and 

over  these  they  exercised  the  same  powers  that 

the  counts  had  over  land  not  neld  *>y  -the 
Church.  The  position  of  the  Church  as  a 
whole  will  be  treated  in  the  following  chapter ;  here  it  is 
essential  to  note  only  the  share  it  had  in  the  government. 
The  abbots  and  bishops  administered  justice,  raised  the 
troops,  and  acted  in  every  way  as  imperial  officials.  This 
tended  still  more  to  increase  the  confusion  between  the 
religious  duties  and  the  political  duties,  which  has  been 
noted  already. 

That  Charles  had  united  western  Europe  and  brought 
the  nations  together  into  a  Christian  state  had  been  due 

mainly  to  the  strength   of  his  own   personal 

The  influence  J 

of  Charles's  character.  His  subjects  respected  and  feared 
personality.  ''MmT'Tfiey  admired  his  bravery  and  dreaded 
his  anger.  He  was  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Church, 
but  he  ruled  its  members  with  a  firm  hand  and  made  them 
aid  in  the  imperial  administration.  By  the  force  of  his 
personality  he  controlled  all  the  discordant  elements  in  the 
state  and  founded  the  medieval  empire.  After  his  death 


THE   EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT  17 

the  empire  was  not  strong  enough  to  make  the  union 
permanent.  It  soon  split  up  into  separate  kingdoms,  but 
the  memory  of  it  was  one  of  the  cohesive  forces  for  the 
future. 

Where  so  much  power  was  entrusted  to  the  counts  and 

the  missij  it  was  certain  to  be  abused  whenever  the  emperor's 

f        eye  could  be  eluded.     Einhard  says  that  the 

Elements  ot  J  » 

weakness :  the  missi  were  frequently  dishonest.  It  was  to 
officials,  their  interest  to  connive  at  the  misdeeds  of 

the  counts.  The  latter  were  almost  independent  in  their 
own  counties  and  used  their  great  opportunities  for  their 
own  profit.  There  was  much  friction  between  the  lay  offi- 
cials and  the  rulers  of  the  Church.  It  was  a  period  of  in- 
creasing lawlessness  and  barbarism. 

Each  of  the  separate  nations  forming  the  empire  had 
its  own  laws,  customs,  and  dialect.     They  felt  little  inter- 
est in  the  empire,  and  were  held  in  check  only 
Different  by  the  fear  of  Charles  or  by  the  need  of  his  pro- 

tection from  their  barbarian  neighbors. 
The  Franks,  who  were  the  immediate  subjects  of  Charles 
and  formed  his  greatest  strength,  were  being  destroyed  by 
the  wars  which  had  lasted  for  so  many  years. 
As  manv  were  eitner  killed  or  wounded  and 
others  ruined,  throughout  the  empire  it  was 
more  and  more  difficult  to  obtain  men  for  the  army.     But 
of  all  the  Germans,  it  was  the  Franks  who  suffered  the 
most,  and  as  there  was  no  interval  of  peace,  their  strength 
and  numbers  gradually  became  exhausted. 

The  great  extent  of  the  empire  made  government  diffi- 
cult. The  roads  were  extremely  bad,  and  traveling  was 
dangerous,  as  robbers  lurked  in  the  woods.  It 
is  wel1  to  remember  that  western  Europe  was 
very  sparsely  settled ;  that  there  were  no  rail- 
roads, no  steamboats,  and  no  telegraph.  The  roads  and 
bridges  which  the  Eomans  had  made  were  being  destroyed 
by  the  lapse  of  time,  and  the  subjects  of  Charles  did  not 


18  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

know  how  to  make  new  ones  equally  good.  All  travel  by 
land  had  to  be  on  horseback,  or  in  carts,  or  on  foot.  On 
the  water,  rowing  or  towing  was  the  usual  method ;  as  men 
did  not  know  how  to  tack,  sails  were  of  no  use  except  in 
going  before  the  wind. 

The  greatest  danger  to  the  empire,  however,  and  the 

real  cause  of  its  disintegration  was  the  German  habit  of 

dividing  the  father's  property  among  all  the 

German  prin-  80TL8t  When  there  were  several  sons  each  one 
ciple  oi  division! 

was  given  his  share.     A  kingdom  was  treated 

just  like  the  estate  of  a  wealthy  man,  and  was  parceled 
out  so  that  each  son  should  have  an  equal,  or  nearly  equal, 
portion.  At  Pippin's  death  the  kingdom  had  been  divided 
between  Charles  and  his  brother.  They  were  not  in  har- 
mony, but  the  brother's  early  death  prevented  the  kingdom 
from  being  weakened.  Charles  planned  to  divide  his  em- 
pire among  his  three  sons ;  in  this  case  disunion  was  de- 
layed because  two  of  the  sons  died  before  the  death  of 

Charles.     The  full  effect  of  this  bad 

policy  of  division  was  seen  in  the  reign 

of  his  son. 

Lewis,  called  the  Pious  because  of 

his  devotion  to  the  Church,  succeeded 
Charles   in   814,   but  was 

814-840,  not  e(lual  to  the  task   of 

ruling    the    empire.      He 

was  not  a  great  warrior,  nor  was  he 
admired  and  feared  by  his  subjects  as 
his  father  had  been.  Yet  his  greatest 

troubles  arose  from  following  in  his 
LEWIS  THE  Pious.  5 

lather  s  footsteps,  by  dividing  the  em- 
pire among  his  sons.  In  817  he  arranged  the  portions 
which  each  one  of  his  three  sons  should  have  as  a  king- 
dom after  his  own  death.  The  eldest,  Lothair,  was  to 
have  the  lion's  share  and  was  made  coemperor  with  hia 
father. 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT     19 


Soon  after  this  division  the  empress  died.  Lewis  fell 
into  a  fit  of  despondency  and  talked  of  abdicating,  in  order 
to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  as  a  monk.  His 
advisers  and  subjects  were  alarmed,  as  they 
feared  that  his  sons  were  too  young  to  rule. 
At  first  they  tried  in  vain  to  shake  his  determination  ;  then 
they  planned  to  make  him  marry  again.  As  the  king  showed 
no  interest  and  would  not  choose  a  wife,  his  advisers  gath- 
ered together  all  the  fairest  maidens  among  the  nobility 
and  brought  them  before  the  emperor.  The  beautiful 
Judith  caught  his  fancy  and  became  his  queen.  They  had 
one  son,  who  was  known  later  as  Charles  the  Bald.  Judith 
soon  acquired  great  influence  over  the  emperor  and  used  it 
to  procure  a  kingdom  for  her  son. 

In  829,  when  the  boy  was  seven  years  old,  Lewis  was 
persuaded  to  make  a  new  division,  taking  away  a  portion 
of  Lothair's  share  and  giving  it  to  Charles. 
All  the  older  sons  were  angry  and  fearful  that 
their  father  in  his  partiality  for  Charles  would 
give  him  still  more.  From  this  time  they  were  almost 
constantly  in  revolt  and  at  war  with  their  father  or  with 
one  another.  The  fortune  of  war  shifted  from  one  side  to 
the  other,  and  each  time  a  new  division  of  the  empire  was 
made.  Finally,  Lewis  the  Pious  died  in  840,  leaving  the 
imperial  crown  to  Jjoihair__and  a  kingdom  to  each  of  his 
surviving  sons.  There  were  only  three  kingdoms ;  as  one 
of  the  sons,  Pippin,  had  died  in  838,  and  the  part  intended 
for  him  had  been  added  to  the  territory  of  Charles  the 
Bald. 

After  the  death  of  his  father,  Lewis  the  Pious,  Lothair 

tried  to  secure  the  whole  empire.     In  841  he  gave  battle  to 

the   allied  forces   of  his  brothers,  Lewis  the 

FoaS!nay,          German   and   Charles  the   Bald.      The  latter 

were  victorious  and  Lothair  suffered  a  decisive 

defeat.     This  battle  determined  the  fate  of  the   empire. 

The  German  principle  of  division  which  had  been  frus- 


20  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

trated  so  often  by  fate  had  triumphed,  and  the  lands 
ruled  by  Charles  the  Great  were  now  divided  into  three 
separate  kingdoms. 

The  brothers,  however,  still  felt  the  need  of  union 
against  Lothair.  In  842  Lewis  and  Charles  met  at  Strass- 
burg  and  took  an  oath  to  continue  their  al- 
liance.  This  oath  has  been  preserved,  and  is 
of  especial  interest  because  each  took  the  oath 
in  the  language  spoken  by  the  subjects  of  the  other. 
Lewis  used  the  following  language  :  "  Pro  Deo  amur  et  pro 
Christian  poUo  et  nostro  commun  salvament,  dist  di  in 
avant,  in  quant  Deus  savir  et  podir  me  dunat,  si  salvaraeio 
cist  meon  fradre  Karlo,  et  in  adiudha  et  in  cadhuna  cosa,  si 
cum  om  per  dreit  son  fradra  salvar  dist,  in  o  quid  il  mi 
altresi  fazet ;  et  ab  Ludher  nul  plaid  numquam  prindrai, 
qui  meon  vol  cist  meon  fradre  Karle  in  damno  sit."  Then 
Charles  repeated  the  same  oath  in  the  German  language  : 
"  In  Godes  minna  ind  in  tlies  christianes  folches  ind  unser 
bedhero  gealtnissi,  fon  thesemo  dage  frammordes,  so  f ram  so 
mir  Got  gewizci  indi  madh  furgibit,  so  Jialdih  tesan  minan 
bruodher,  soso  man  mit  relitu  sinan  bruher  seal,  in  tliiu, 
thaz  er  mig  sosoma  duo  indi  mit  Ludheren  in  nohheiniu 
thing  ne gegango,  the  minan  willonlMu~ue^scadhen  werhen" l 
These  are  the  earliest  specimens  which  have  been  pre- 
served of  the  Romance  and  Germanic  languages.  It  is 
clear  that  the  two  people  could  not  understand  each  other, 
and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  only  one  word  has  prac- 
tically the  same  form  in  the  two  oaths. 

In  the  following  year  the  three  brothers  met  and  agreed 
to  the  treaty  of  Verdun.  By  this  treaty  Lewis  the  German 

1  Out  of  love  for  God  and  for  the  good  of  the  Christian  people  and 
our  own  salvation,  I  will  in  future,  from  this  day  forth,  as  far  as  God 
gives  to  me  wisdom  and  power,  treat  this  my  brother  as  one  ought  to 
treat  his  brother,  on  the  condition  that  he  does  the  same  by  me.  And 
with  Lothair  I  will  not  willingly  enter  into  any  agreement  which  may 
injure  this  my  brother. 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT  21 

received  lands  inhabited  almost  entirely  by  German  tribes. 

The  possessions  on  the  west  of  the  Rhine  were  said  to 
have  been  given  to  him  so  that  he  might  have 
some  places  which  would  furnish  him  with  a 
supply  of  wine.  The  kingdom  of  Charles  was 

inhabited  mainly  by  the  descendants  of  Romanized  Gauls. 

Lothair,  however,  had  a  long  and  comparatively  narrow 


CHARLES  THE  BALD. 

strip  extending  from  Aachen  to  Rome,  inhabited  by  men 
of  different  races.  In  their  arrangements  for  the  divi- 
sion of  their  family  property  the  sons  of  Lewis  had  taken 
no  account  of  the  physical  geography.  The  kingdom  of 
Lothair  had  no  natural  boundaries  and  was  exposed  to 
3 


THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLES  THE  GREAT  23 

invasion  on  all  its  frontiers ;  the  two  capitals  were  situ- 
ated at  the  northern  and  southern  extremities.  It  was 
possible  for  the  kingdom  of  Lewis  to  develop  into  Ger- 
many and  for  the  kingdom  of  Charles  to  develop  into 
France.  The  empire  of  Lothair  was  destined  to  have  no 
national  unity  and  to  be  a  bone  of  contention  for,  more 
than  a  thousand  years.  ^  Sv\l 

From  this  time  the  fortunes  of  the  Frankish  Empire 
declined.  Its  territories  were  divided  and  subdivided.  The 

real  heirs  of  Charles  the  Great  were  the  dukes,  ^ 
counts,and  bishops,  who  became  more  inde- 
pmiSentas  the  Carolingian  rulers  became 
weaker,  for  in  each  of  the  kingdoms  the  ruler  was  intent 
upon  increasing  his  territory  or  upon  securing  the  imperial 
title.  In  order  to  gain  the  support  of  his  subjects  for  his 
ambitious  plans,  he  was  obliged  to  make  constant  conces- 
sions oJMjjLniia-and  powers  until  he  was  left  almost  without 
resources  for  maintaining  the  empty  titles  of  "king  and  em- 
peror. 

REFERENCES 

The  best  work  on  Charles  the  Great  is  ^^mberj^Cha^les  the 
Great  (New  York,  1888).  Hodgkin's  Charles  the  'Great  (New  York, 
1897)  is  a  good  short  biography.  West's  Alcuin  (New  York,  1893) 
has  interesting  accounts  of  the  studies  pursued,  by  Charles.  Hen- 
derson's History  of  Germany  (London,  1894),  Sergeant's  The 
J^S^New  York,  1898),  and  Emerton's  Medieval  Europe  (Boston, 
1894)  have  chapters  covering  the  period.  Einhard's  Biography  of 
Charles  has  been  translated  and  published  under  the  title  Eginhard  : 
Life  of  Charlemagne  (New  York,  1880)  ;  this  is  one  of  the  most 
important  sources,  as  the  author  gathered  his  materials  from  the 
emperor  himself.  Selections  from  the  laws  of  Charles  are  published 
in  Vol.  VI,  No.  5,  of  the  series  of  Translations  and  Reprints  (Phila- 
delphia, 1899). 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  III 
The  Church 

SUMMARY. — Men  believed  that  there  was  but  one  Church,  of  which 
all  Christians  were  members.  This  Church  held  extensive  possessions 
and  exercised  jurisdiction  in  different  ways.  By  its  punishments  it 
controlled  the  unruly ;  by  its  -services  to  civilization  it  secured  influ- 
ence and  wealth.  In  particular,  it  was  the  great  educational  agency  if 
throughout  the  early  middle  ages.  ,  — / 

JUST  as  men  believed  in  one  empire  which  included  all  \ 
Christian  lands,  so  they  believed  in  one  Church.      They  ; 
Medieval  con-      thought  of  the  empire  as  having  a  real  exist- 
ceptionofthe      ence  entirely  distinct  from  the  countries   of 
Church.  which  it  was  composed  and  as  conferring  upon 

its  ruler  a  greater  authority  than  that  possessed  by  any| 
king.     In  a  similar  manner  they  thought  of  the  Church  as 
an  entity  possessing  property  and  having  authority  ovei 
all  Christians.     They  therefore  spoke  of  the  power  of  the 
Church,  or  of  a  war  between  the  Church  and  the  Empire. 

The  Church  was  engaged  in  two  very  different  tasks 
although  they  were  closely  connected.     On  the  one  hand,    •'.' 
it  taught   people   religion  and  watched   over 

their  morals  >  on  the  other>  ii;  was  a  greaj;  gov-  ^ 
erning  body,  ruling  many  with  the  same  power 
and  duties  as  a  monarch.  All  persons  on  lands  held  by  the 
Church  were  subject  to  this  latter  kind  of  authority  and 
their  number  was  very  great,  for  the  Church  had  extensive 
possessions  in  every  country  of  western  Europe.  Part  of 
its  lands  had  been  received  as  pious  gifts;  another  part 
had  been  reclaimed  from  the  wilderness  by  the  labors  of 

25 


/ 


THE  CHURCH  27 

the  monks  ;  other  lands  had  been  bought.  On  these  it  was 
necessary  that  justice  should  be  enforced  and  that  order 
should  be  maintained.  As  their  territories  and  subjects 
were  exposed  to  constant  attacks  from  neighbors  or  in- 
vaders, an  army  was  needed.  The  abbots  and  bishops  who 
were  the  rulers  of  these  estates  were  therefore  the  source 
of  all  local  authority.  As  has  been  stated,  they  maintained 
order,  held  the  courts,  and  raised  the  armies.  Charles  the 
Great  summoned  the  bishops  and  abbots  in  the  empire  to 
act  as  missi  dominici.  Consequently  they  were  not  merely 
guides  in  religious  matters,  but  also  judges  and  officials  of 
the  king.  They  taught  the  religious  duties  and  had  power 
to  condemn  criminals  to  death ;  they  directed  the  schools, 
collected  the  feudal  dues,  and  made  war  and  peace. 

The  supreme  authority  in  all  matters  of  faith  was  held 
by  the  Pope,  who  also  ruled  the  city  of  Rome  and  the  sur- 
rounding territory,      ^ext  in  rank  were  the 
!lergj    archbTshops,  then  the  bisffijps,  and  below  them 
the  parisn  priests,  deacons,  and  other  officials  of  the  Church. 
All  of  these,  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  were  called  ihe\ 
secular  clergy,1  partly  because  they  were  engaged  in  direct- 
ing the  affairs  of  the   Church  and  in  watching  over  the 
morals  of  the  people,  but  especially  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  regular 8  clergy. 

The  regular  clergy  were  men  and  women,  governed  by 

monastic  rules,  who  had  retired  from  the  world  to  live  in 

monasteries  and  to  devote  their  lives  to   the 

' ergy'  service  of  God.     There  were  many  thousands, 

dwelling  in  almost  every  portion  of  western  Europe.     They 

had  done  much  by  their  missionary  journeys  to  spread  the 

teachings  of  Christ.     With  a  few  exceptions  the  schools 

were  in  the  monasteries,  taught  by  them,  and  most  of  the 

books  were  written  or  copied  by  the  monks.     They  had 


1  From  seculum,  used  in  the  sense  of  "  the  world." 

2  From  regula,  a  rule. 


28  MEDIEVAL  EISTOKY 

also  done  much  for  the  material  welfare  of  the  people. 
Travelers,  rich  or  poor,  were  received  freely  and  without 
charge  into  the  monasteries,  which  supplied  the  ahsence  of 
inns  and  made  traveling  possible.  The  monks  were  less 
ignorant  than  the  people  about  them,  and  taught  their 
neighbors  better  methods  of  farming  and  working.  They 
gave  a  new  dignity  to  manual  labor,  which  had  been  de- 
spised by  free  men,  for  they  worked  even  when  they  were 
riot  compelled  to  earn  their  own  living.  St.  Benedict, 
whose  rule  was  followed  by  almost  all  the  monks  in  the 
West,  had  inculcated  the  habit  of  labor,  both  manual  and 
intellectual,  as  a  pious  duty.  "  Idleness  is  the  enemy  of 
the  soul,  and  for  this  reason  the  brethren  are  to  be  engaged 
at  fixed  times  in  manual  labor,  also  at  certain  hours  in  the 
study  of  sacred  books." J 

In  addition  to  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  the  Church 

included  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  empire  except  the  Jews, 

who  were  few  in  number.     All  the  others  were 

compelled  to  be  Christians  and  to  be  under  the 

authority  of  the   Church.     After  conquering  the  Saxons, 

Charles  the  Great  had  commanded 2  that  every  man,  woman, 

and  child  should  be  baptized  within  a  year  under  penalty 

of  death.    He  had  also  ordered  that  every  one  should  attend 

services  on  Sunday  and  contribute  to  the  support  of  the 

Church. 

The  primary  duty  of  the  Church  was  to  teach  religion 
and  to  keep  its  members  from  sin.     In  all  matters  of  re- 
ligion its  officials  were  the  judges,  who  deter- 
the  Church?  °f     mined  whether  people  had  done  right  or  wrong, 
and  punished  the  guilty.     Many  things  were 
considered  religious  matters  which  would  now  be  judged 
by  the  state  courts.     As  marriages  were  performed  by  the 


1  Rule  of  St.  Benedict,  chap,  xlviii.     About  six  hours  daily  were  to 
be  spent  in  manual  labor  and  two  hours  in  study. 
1  Undated  law,  published  between  775  and  790. 


THE  CHURCH 


29 


clergy,  all  questions  connected  with  marriages  were  de- 
cided by  the  bishops  or  their  representatives.  Many  crimes 
or  transgressions  were  thought  of  primarily  as  sins,  and 
consequently  came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church. 
No  Christian  was  exempt 
from  this  jurisdiction. 
Kings  as  well  as  their 
subjects  were  expected  to 
obey  in  all  matters  of  re- 
ligion. As  the  Archbishop 
of  Kheims  wrote  in  the 
ninth  century :  "  The  king 
is  a  man  just  like  other 
men.  He  ought  to  respect 
the  Church  and  the  prop- 
erty of  his  neighbor.  His 
duties  are  the  same  as 
those  of  other  Christians." 
Acting  on  this  principle, 
the  members  of  the  clergy 
frequently  condemned  the 
actions  of  the  kings  and 
nobles.  In  some  instances 
the  Pope  declared  a  king 
deposed  and  forbade  his  subjects  to  obey  him,  because  he 
had  been  guilty  of  a  crime  against  religion.  Thus  Lothair 
IT,  the  great-grandson  of  Charles  the  Great,  was  declared 
deposed  because  he  had  divorced  his  wife  and  married 
again,  contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the  Church  and  to  the 
Pope's  command.  Lothair  was  compelled  finally  to  recog- 
nize the  authority  of  the  Pope.1 

The  Church  enforced  its  power  by  various  means.    Some 
of   its   members  were  sincerely  pious  and  loved  to  fulfil 


BISHOP. 

(After  miniature  of  ninth  to  eleventh 
century.) 


1  For  a  more  famous  instance  of  the  exercise  of  this  authority,  see 
chap.  vi. 


30  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

their  religious  duties ;  but  in  such  an  age  of  barbarism  and 
warfare  many  could  be  controlled  only  through  fear.  To 
The  Church's  them  were  preached  the  terrors  in  store  for 
means  of  the  guilty,  who  would  suffer  horrible  tortures 

control,  -n  ^e  nex^.  Wori(j4     £  Brutal  nobleman,  Avho 

feared  nothing  on  earth,  could  often  be  reduced  to  obedi- 
ence by  a  vivid  description  of  the  eternal  punishment 
awaiting  him  unless  he  repented. 

The  penitent  were  required  to  show  their  repentance  by 
doing  penance.  This  was  a  custom  which  had  grown  up 

in  the  early  Church,  and  was  based  upon  the 

feeling  that  a  guilty  man  ought  to  show  his 
sorrow  by  his  actions  and  to  make  such  atonement  as  lay 
in  his  power.  Consequently  a  knight  who  had  killed  an 
opponent  might  be  required  to  lay  aside  his  arms  and  to 
engage  in  a  work  of  charity,  or  a  man  who  had  sinned 
grievously  might  be  ordered  to  give  up  his  ordinary  pur- 
suits and  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  some  saint, 
or  to  Rome,  or  even  to  Jerusalem.  His  willingness  to 
abandon  all  and  to  expose  himself  to  the  perils  and  priva- 
tions of  a  pilgrimage  would  show  that  he  was  sincerely 
penitent.  Many  entered  monasteries  in  order  to  atone  for 
the  evil  lives  which  they  had  led. 

If  a  man  remained  obdurate  and  would  not  heed  the 
commands  of  the  Church,  he  was  excommunicated— that 

is,  he  was  shut  out  from  the  common  life  of 
fion!mmTUUCa~  Christians  and  from  all  association  with  his 

fellow  men.  If  a  man  died  excommunicate 
he  was  believed  to  be  condemned  to  eternal  punishment. 
In  order  to  compel  him  to  repent  no  one  was  allowed 
to  have  anything  to  do  with  him  ;  even  the  members  of 
his  own  family  were  excommunicated  if  they  ate  with 
him  or  befriended  him. 

In  case  a  ruler  was  obstinate  and  would  not  submit, 
even  when  excommunicated,  his  land  was  placed  under  an 
interdict.  In  all  his  territory  no  public  church  services 


THE  CHURCH  31 

were  held,  no  marriages  were  performed,  no  dead  bodies 
were  given  burial.  "  The  people  were  forbidden  to  enter 
the  churches  for  the  purpose  of  worshiping 
God,  and  the  doors  were  locked.  The  music 
of  the  bells  was  silenced  and  the  bodies  of  the  dead  lay 
unburied  and  putrefying,  striking  the  beholders  with  fear 
and  horror.  The  pleasures  of  marriage  were  denied  to 
those  desiring  them,  and  the  'solemn  joys  of  the  church 
services  were  no  longer  known."  1  By  such  deprivations 
the  people  would  be  reduced  to  distress  and  terror,  and 
usually  the  ruler  had  to  yield. 

It  would  be  unjust,  however,  to  ascribe  the  hold  which 
the  Church  of  our  ancestors  had  upon  the  people  to  its 
Influence  of  the  ^errors  an&  punishments,  for  these  were  in- 
Church  due  to  tended  only  for  the  guilty.  Its  power  was 
its  services,  secured  mainly  because  of  the  useful  services 
which  it  performed.  Some  of  the  good  which  the  monks 
did  has  been  referred  to  already.  The  secular  clergy  were 
the  spiritual  guides  of  their  parishioners  ;  they  baptized, 
married,  and  buried  the  people.  The  priest  was  the  leader 
in  the  parish  and  the  churches  were  the  gathering-places 
not  only  for  religious  services,  but  also  for  social  diversions. 
Sunday  was  the  holiday  for  the  hard-working  population, 
and  it  was  spent  in  or  near  the  church.  In  addition  to 
the  religious  services,  which  all  attended,  the  priest  would 
read  to  the  people  letters  from  the  absent — especially  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  crusades — and  would  announce  any 
news  that  he  had  heard.  Often  between  the  morning  and 
evening  services  there  were  games  or  other  amusements.  -^ 
The  church  was  for  the  peasants  the  center,  of  all  their  A 
social  life.  Naturally  when  such  power  and  influence  were  / 
in  the  hands  of  the  priest  there  were  some  unworthy  of 
their  vocation — some  bad  men  who  sought  the  office  and 

1  From  an  interdict  laid  in  Normandy  in  1137.    See  Translations 
and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  4. 


32  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

did  not  perform  its  duties.  Ambitious  men  were  especially 
tempted  to  obtain  the  bishoprics  on  account  of  the  great 
power  and  wealth  which  a  bishop  had  ;  sometimes  a  worldly 
layman  was  given  a  bishopric  by  a  king  who  wanted  to  re- 
ward a  favorite.  In  a  time  of  such  general  ignorance  the 
members  of  the  clergy  were  not  always  much  more  learned 
than  the  people  under  their  charge.  The  church  councils 
labored  earnestly  to  correct  these  evils  and  to  compel  all 
members  of  the  clergy  to  lead  righteous  lives.  Sometimes 
the  reformers  took  a  gloomy  view  of  the  times  in  which 
they  lived,  and  thought  that  the  morals  were  declining. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  possible  to  contrast  the  condition 
of  society  at  the  end  of  the  middle  ages  with  the  society  in 
the  feudal  period  and  to  realize  the  enormous  advance 
which  had  been  made.  This  advance  was  due  mainly  to 
the  influence  of  the  clergy,  as  they  were  for  centuries  the 
only  teachers  of  the  people. 

REFERENCES 

Cunningham,  Western  Civilization  (Medieval  and  Modern  Times) 
(Cambridge,  1900),  pp.  17-40.  Formation  of  the  Papacy  :  Adams, 
Civilization  (New  York,  1894),  chap.  vi.  Monks  of  the  West  : 
Emerton,  Introduction,  chap.  xi.  Organization  in  Parishes  in  Eng- 
land: Green,  Conquest  of  England  (London,  1883),  pp.  12-16.  Mon- 
astic Movement  in  England  in  the  Seventh  Century:  Green,  Making 
of  England  (New  York,  1882),  pp.  335-370.  Why  Men  went  into 
Monasteries:  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West  (Boston,  1860), 
vol.  i,  pp.  226-249.  Discipline:  Cutts,  Parish  Priests  and  their 
People  (London,  1898),  chap.  xxxi. 


CHAPTER  IV 
The  Invasions 

SUMMARY. — The  weakness  of  the  Carolingian  monarchs  exposed 
their  kingdoms  to  invasions  by  Saracens,  Slavs,  Hungarians,  and 
Northmen.  The  last  were  by  far  the  most  dangerous  foes.  Their 
constant  raids  and  the  rapidity  of  their  movements  compelled  the  peo- 
ple in  each  locality  to  seek  aid  from  any  strong  man  who  could  pro- 
tect them.  Consequently  the  nobles  who  held  castles,  which  served  as 
places  of  refuge,  and  had  military  forces  to  defend  the  peasants,  gradu- 
ally became  all-powerful  in  the  different  parts  of  the  kingdoms.  In 
return  for  their  protection  they  demanded  services  and  pay  from  the 
people. 

AFTER  the  death  of  Lewis  the  Pious  in  840  there  was 
no  strong  central  government,  for  his  sons  were  engaged 
Weakness  of  the  *n  constan*  warfare.  Busy  with  attempts  to 
Carolingian  gain  more  territory,  they  were  unable  to  keep 
king8t  order  in  their  own  kingdoms,  and,  being  jeal- 

ous of  one  another,  they  did  not  join  together  to  repel 
invaders.  Within  each  kingdom  the  means  of  communica- 
tion were  bad,  so  that  news  traveled  slowly ;  and  the  roads 
were  out  of  repair,  so  that  soldiers  could  not  be  sent  rap- 
idly from  one  part  of  the  kingdom  to  another.  Further- 
more, no  feeling  of  patriotism  or  nationality  led  the  in- 
habitants in  one  section  to  help  the  people  in  another. 
Because  of  this  weakness  and  disunion  the  frontiers  were 
harried  repeatedly  by  invaders,  and  even  the  interior  of  the 
country  was  never  secure  from  attack. 

In  the  south  the  Saracens  from  Spain  and  northern 
Africa  made  constant  raids,  sacking  the  towns  on  the  coast 
of  Italy  and  the  cities  in  southern  Gaul,  where  they  plun- 
4  33 


34  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

dered  the  monasteries  and  burned  the  churches.    One  place 

after  another  was  laid  waste  by  them,  and  neither  the 

Eastern  emperor  nor  the  German  kings  could 

The  Saracens,      protect  their  sukjects.     In  82£they  began  the 

conquest  of  Sicily,  which  was  completed  after  half  a  cen- 
tury of  war  with  the  Greek  emperor.  They  devastated  the 
country  about  Eome,  and  even  sacked  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter,  which  was  not  within  the  limits  of  the  city  walls. 
After  they  had  been  defeated  Pope  Leo  built  a  great  wall 
around  that  portion  of  Eome  where  St.  Peter's  and  the 
Vatican  now  stand,  and  this  enclosure  was  called  in  his 
honor  the  Leonine  city.  Soon  after  this  the  Saracens  con- 
quered Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  most  of  southern  Italy. 

The  eastern  frontiers  were  attacked  by  the  Slavs  and 
Hungarians.  The  former  ravaged  Thuringia  and  con- 
quered Moravia.  Along  the  Danube  the  Hun- 
garians,  or  Magyars,  as  they  called  themselves, 
made  swift  raids,  pillaging  the  country.  They 
were  savages  who  traveled  on  horseback,  and  swooping 
down  without  warning  on  some  town  or  village,  they  would 
kill  all  the  men  and  old  women,  sparing  only  the  boys  and 
maidens,  whom  they  carried  into  slavery.  They  were 
famous  for  their  greed,  and  there  was  a  saying  current 
among  the  Germans  that  if  a  piece  of  gold  were  placed  on 
the  grave  of  a  dead  Hungarian  he  would  put  up  his  hand 
to  seize  it. 

The  most  dangerous  of  all  the  invaders  were  the  North- 
men, who  came  from  the  Scandinavian  countries — Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden.     These  people  were  still 
pagans  and  far  more  barbarous  than  the  in- 
habitants of  the   Carolingian  kingdoms.      They  were  ac- 
customed to  life  on  the  sea  and  were  hard  fighters.   Tempted 
by  their  love  of  adventure  and  the  desire  for  gain,  they 
made  plundering  expeditions  along  the   coasts   of  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  Ireland.     At  first  these  were  of  little  impor- 
tance, but  in  the  ninth  century  revolutions  in  Norway  and 


THE  INVASIONS  35 

Denmark  led  to  an  enormous  increase  in  the  number  of 
Northmen  who  engaged  in  marauding  expeditions ;  for  two 
great  kingdoms  were  established  in  these  countries  by  mon- 
arch? who  maintained  order  and  forced  all  who  would  not 
submit  to  their  power  to  leave  the  land.  Then  piracy  be- 
came the  principal  occupation  of  the  outlaws,  who  built 
long  open  boats  which  would  hold  about  sixty  to  eighty 
men  and  which  could  be  propelled  either  by  oars  or  sails. 


BOAT  FOUND  AT  NYDAM  IN  SCHLESWIG. 

These  boats  drew  little  water  and  could  be  concealed  very 
easily.1  The  chiefs  of  these  bands  of  vikings,  as  the  North- 
men were  called,  "never  sought  refuge  under  a  roof  nor 
emptied  their  drinking-horns  by  a  hearth."  "  The  eager 
prince  would  drink  his  Yule  at  sea  and  play  Frey's  game 
[war]  if  he  had  his  will.  From  his  youth  up  he  loathed 
the  fire-boiler  [hearth]  and  sitting  indoors,  the  warm 
bower,  and  the  bolster  full  of  down." 

Their  method  of  attack  was  to  ascend  some 
°f          river,  hide  their  boat  in  a  favorable  spot,  and 
then  fall  upon  the  nearest  village.     If  they 

1  Three  of  these  boats  have  been  found  in  modern  times  buried  in 
swamps  in  Denmark  and  Sweden.  The  best  preserved  is  75  feet  in 
length  (60  feet  along  the  keel),  15  feet  wide,  and  3£  feet  deep  amidships. 
It  had  16  oars  on  each  side. 


36  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

met  with  a  determined  resistance  they  would  feign  a  flight ; 
but  when  the  enemy  scattered  in  pursuit  they  would  form 
again  and  renew  the  attack. 

"  They  are  well  cared  for,  the  warriors  that  cast  dice  in 
Harold's  court.     They  are  endowed  with  wealth  and  with 
fair  swords,  with  the  ore  of  the  Huns,  and 

with  maids  from  the  East-    They  are  slad 

when  they  have  hopes  of  a  battle  ;  they  will 
leap  up  in  hot  haste  and  ply  the  oars,  snapping  the  oar- 
thongs  and  cracking  the  tholes.  Fiercely,  I  ween,  do  they 
churn  the  water  with  their  oars  at  the  king's  bidding." 
"  Ships  came  from  the  West  ready  for  war,  with  grinning 
heads  and  carven  beaks.  They  were  laden  with  warriors, 
with  white  shields,  with  Western  spears,  and  Welsh  [Gaul- 
ish] swords.  They  tried  their  strength  against  the  eager 
king,  the  Lord  of  the  Eastmen  that  dwells  at  Outstone, 
and  he  taught  them  to  flee.  The  king  launched  his  ship 
when  he  looked  for  the  battle."  "  The  flying  javelin  bit, 
peace  was  belied  there,  the  wolf  was  glad,  and  the  bow  was 
drawn,  the  bolts  clattered,  the  spear-points  bit,  the  flaxen 
bow-string  bore  the  arrows  out  of  the  bow.  He  brandished 
the  buckler  on  his  arm,  the  rouser  of  the  play  of  blades — 
he  is  a  mighty  hero."  a 

In  order  to  capture  larger  towns  and  thus  secure  more 
booty,  many  vikings  would  join  together.     In  the  summer 

they  gathered  their  boats  near  some  island 
Camps  on  which  they  fortified,  and  from  this  as  a  center 

made  raids  upon  the  surrounding  country. 
When  the  invasions  first  began  they  returned  home  each  fall 
with  their  "  summer  harvest."  Later  on,  as  a  matter  of 
convenience  or  of  necessity,  because  the  leaders  had  been 
outlawed,  they  made  winter  camps  on  islands  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Seine,  Loire,  and  other  rivers. 

1  The  sagas  are  popular  legends  of  the  Northmen,  describing  their 
prowess  and  combats. 


THE  INVASIONS 


37 


Various 
expeditions 


In  795  they  made  a  descent  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  In 
841  and  the  succeeding  years  different  bands  sacked  many 
parts  of  Gaul.  A  contemporary  chronicler 
writes  :  "  The  Northmen,  as  they  were  wont  to 
do,  put  the  Christians  to  shame  and  grew  more 
and  more  in  strength.  But  it  is  a  sorrow  to  have  to  write 
these  things."  Charles  the  Bald  built  fortified  bridges  to 
prevent  the  invaders  from  as- 
cending rivers,  but  he  was  not 
able  to  defend  these  bridges. 
Another  contemporary  wrote : 
"  All  men  give  themselves  to 
flight.  No  one  cries  out, '  Stand 
and  fight  for  your  fatherland, 
for  your  Church,  for  your 
countrymen?  What  they 
ought  to  defend  with  arms 
they  shamefully  redeem  by 
payments.  The  commonweal 
of  Christendom  is  betrayed  by 
its  guardians."  In  885  seven 

hundred  or  more  vessels  were  gathered  together  to  besiege 
Paris;  after  a  siege  of  a  year  the  emperor,  Charles  the 
Fat,  bought  the  invaders  off  by  a  bribe  and  an  invitation  to 
plunder  northern  Burgundy.  In  the  same  century  some 
Northmen  went  as  far  as  Constantinople  and  entered  into 
the  service  of  the  emperor  of  the  East.  Others  under 
Hastings  attacked  the  Moors  in  Spain,  ascended  the  Gua- 
dalquivir, and  sacked  Seville.  Later  Hastings  made  de- 
scents on  the  Italian  coast,  plundering  Pisa  and  Luna.  In 
867  most  of  the  piratical  bands  of  Northmen  attacked  Eng- 
land and  were  so  successful  that  in  878,  by  the  peace  of 
Wedmore,  the  Danes  were  recognized  as  masters  of  the 
north  of  England.  In  911  Duke  Rollo  received  a  grant  of 
Normandy  from  the  French  king  under  the  condition  that 
he  should  defend  it.  From  this  time  on  the  Normans^  as 


PLAQUE  OF  GOLD,  REPRESENTING 
NORTHERN  DEITIES. 


38  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

they  soon  came  to  be  called,  were  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant peoples  of  Europe. 

These  constant  invasions  showed  the  weakness  of  the 
kings,  and  the  people  soon  learned  that  they  could  expect 
little  help  from  their  sovereigns.  In  every 
looaTdefense  P^ace  which  was  exposed  to  invasions — and  no 
part  of  western  Europe  was  safe  from  them — 
the  inhabitants  were  compelled  to  provide  for  their  own 
defense.1  The  nobles  built  castles  which  served  as  places 
of  refuge  for  the  neighboring  peasants.  For  the  sake  of 
protection  little  villages  were  built  usually  at  the  foot  of 
the  hills  on  which  the  castles  stood.  In  the  larger  towns 
the  people  built  stronger  walls  and  towers,  but  they  trusted 
to  a  great  extent  in  the  protection  which  their  noble  lord 
could  furnish.  Consequently  these  invasions  made  the 
people  of  each  district  look  to  resident  nobles  for  the  de- 
fense which  the  king  was  unable  to  give. 

The  lord  of  the  castle  was  compelled  to  perform  the 
duties  of  the  king,  and  wherever  a  warlike  noble  could 
furnish  protection  he  was  recognized  as  the 
nobles  °fthe       cnie^  power ;  he   collected  the  taxes,  admin- 
istered justice,  and  led  the  people  in  battle. 
Consequently  northern  and  western  Europe  became  divided 
up  into  small  local  units  under  the  lordship  of  fighting 
nobles,  and  the  king  was  forced  to  recognize  their  power. 
He  had  to  depend  upon  them  when  he  needed  an  army, 
and  in  return  for  their  aid  he  legalized  their  position  and 
agreed  not  to  interfere  with  their  administration  of  justice  ; 
he  did  the  same  for  the  abbots  and  bishops, 
M^rsen  847       w^°  occupie(l  the  same  position  and  had  the 
same  power  as  the  lay  nobles.     In  847  a  law 
was  passed  that  every  free  man  must  have  a  lord  who  would 
be  responsible  for  him  and  whom  he  must  serve.    He  was  to 

1  A  special  petition  was  added  to  the  church  service :  "  From  the 
fury  of  the  Northmen,  0  Lord,  deliver  us ! " 


THE  INVASIONS  39 

serve  and  obey  only  his  immediate  lord  unless  there  was 
a  general  invasion  of  the  kingdom,  which  would  make  it 
necessary  for  the  king  to  summon  all  the  men.  The  weak- 
ness of  the  kings  and  the  necessity  of  granting  power  to 
the  nobles  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  feudal  usages 
throughout  western  Europe. 

REFERENCES 

Saracens  in  Spain :  Oman,  Dark  Ages  (New  York,  1893),  pp.  234, 
271;  Saracens  in  Gaul:  Oman,  pp.  292,  293,  409;  Saracens  in  Italy: 
Oman,  pp.  450-452,  456-462,  465,  466;  and  Gibbon  (ed.  Bury),  vol. 
vi,  pp.  37-43  (part  of  chap.  lii).  Hungarians:  Oman,  pp.  465,  471, 
474,  476.  The  Northmen  in  their  Home :  Johnson,  Normans  (New 
York,  1893),  chap.  i.  Appearance,  Dress,  etc.,  of  Normans:  John- 
son, pp.  17-19.  Normans  in  Russia  and  Constantinople :  Johnson, 
pp.  29-32.  Normans  in  Italy:  Gibbon  (ed.  Bury),  vol.  vi,  pp.  173- 
193  (part  of  chap.  Ivi). 


CHAPTER  V 

Feudalism 

SUMMARY. — The  powers  which  had  been  exercised  by  the  kings 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  nobles,  and  feudal  usages  superseded  mon- 
archical. The  elements  which  shaped  European  feudalism  were  the 
pjra£tise_^f_commendation,  the  bestowal  of  fiefs,  and  the  grajits_of  im- 
munity. TheTords  owed  duties  to  their  vassals  and  had  the  right  to 
demand  from  the  latter  services.  All  political,  social,  and  economic 
conditions  were  determined  by  feudal  customs. 

IK  many  countries  society  has  passed  through  a  feudal 
stage.  Wherever  the  central  authority  has  proved  too 
Feudalism  not  wea^  *°  defend  its  subjects  and  to  maintain 
confined  to  order  it  has  been  necessary  for  some  one  else 
Europe,  ^  perform  these  duties.  In  such  a  case  the 

[  one  who  offered  efficient  aid  demanded  in  return  obedience 
and  compensation  from  those  whom  he  protected.  An- 
cient Egypt  for  some  centuries  was  governed  chiefly  by 
feudal  nobles,  and  in  Japan  until  a  generation  ago  feu- 
dalism was  the  recognized  condition  of  affairs. 

In  western  Europe,  after  the  decline  of  the  Carolin- 
gian  empire,  the  weakness  of  the  kings,  the  difficulty  in 
going  from  one  place  to  another,  the  lack  of 
any  feelinS  of  unity  among  the  different 
peoples,  and  the  need  of  protection  against 
the  Northmen  and  other  invaders,  made  it  necessary  to 
arrange  some  means  of  defense  in  each  locality.  Usually 
some  nobleman  became  the  defender  and  ruler,'  and  al- 
though kings  still  continued  to  rule  in  name,  the  actual 
power  passed  gradually  in  each  district  to  the  nobles. 
40 


FEUDALISM  41 

This  change  took  place  more  easily  because  the  nobles 
under  earlier  rulers  had  acted  as  the  king's  agents  in  the 
government. 

In  order  to  understand  their  position  it  is  necessary  to 
study  the  customs  which  shaped  feudalism.  The  elements 
Elements  of  which  determined  the  form  of  European  feu- 
feudalism  :  dalism  were  three  in  number :  the  "practise  of 
commendation,  commendation,  the  holding  of  benefices  ,or 
fiefs,  and  Jhe^ossession  of  immunities.  Commendation 
was  the  act  by  which  a  free  man  became  the  vassal  of  some 
other  man.  In  order  to  obtain  food  and  clothing,  or  to 
secure  protection,  or  to  increase  his  own  importance,  a 
man  might  commend  himself  to  some  one  more  powerful — a 
noble,  or  a  bishop,  or  an  abbot — who  became  his  lord  ;  that 
is,  the  man  promised  to  serve  the  lord  faithfully,  to  aid  him 
in  fighting  or  with  advice ;  in  short,  to  be  his  vassal.  In 
return  the  lord  promised  support  and  protection.  The 
vassal  did  not  lose  his  position  as  a  free  man  and  did  not 
sink  at  all  in  the  social  scale.  The  nobles  welcomed  vas- 
sals because  of  the  added  importance  and  strength  which 
it  gave  to  them  to  have  a  large  body  of  followers.  A 
typical  formula  of  commendation  reads :."  Since  it  is  known 
familiarly  to  all  how  little  I  have  whence  to  feed  and  clothe 
myself,  I  have  therefore  petitioned  your  piety,  and  your  good- 
will has  decreed  to  me  that  I  should  hand  myself  over  or 
commend  myself  to  your  guardianship,  which  I  have  there- 
upon done— that  is  to  say,  in  this  way :  that  you  should  aid 
and  succor  me  as  well  with  food  as  with  clothing,  according 
as  I  shall  be  able  to  serve  you  and  deserve  it.  And  so  long 
as  I  shall  live  I  ought  to  provide  service  and  honor  to  you, 
suitably  to  my  free  condition  ;  and  I  shall  not  during  the 
time  of  my  life  have  the  ability  to  withdraw  from  your 
power  or  guardianship,  but  must  remain  during  the  days 
of  my  life  under  your  power  or  defense."  ] 

1  See  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  3. 


42  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

A  benefice  or  a  fief  *  was  usually  a  grant  of  land  made  by 
a  lord  ito  a  vassal.  Such  a  grant  might  be  made  for  various 

reasons.     In  the  first  place,  money  was  scarce 

and  little  used ;  when  the  king  appointed  a 
count  or  other  official  to  govern  a  portion  of  the  kingdom, 
he  paid  him  no  salary  in  money,  but  instead  he  gave  him 
land  which  would  produce  food  and  other  necessaries.  In 
return  the  official  became  his  vassal.  When  a  nobleman 
needed  soldiers  he  hired  them  by  giving  them  land  in  re- 
turn for  their  services,  and  they  became  his  vassals.  Often 
men  who  owned  land,  and  needed  protection,  handed  it  over 
to  some  more  powerful  person  as  a  gift  on  condition  of  re- 
ceiving it  back  as  a  benefice.  In  this  way  they  became  the 
vassals  of  the  lord  to  whom  they  had  transferred  the  land. 
As  will  be  seen  below,  they  lost  little  by  giving  up  their 
title  to  the  property,  and  they  often  secured  powerful  pro- 
tection. Sometimes  as  a  pious  act  they  gave  land  to  the 
Church,  and  received  it  back  as  a  benefice.  When  a  man 
was  granted  a  fief  the  land  did  not  actually  belong  to  him, 
but  he  had  the  use  of  it  and  the  profits  arising  from  it. 
Usually  he  made  a  payment  in  money  or  produce,  each 
year,  to  the  lord,  not  as  rent,  but  as  a  recognition  that  the 
land  belonged  to  the  lord.  Generally  his  son,  if  he  had 
one,  succeeded  to  the  fief,  and  the  same  land  was  held  by 
the  same  family,  generation  after  generation. 

Gradually  almost  all  the  allodial,  or  freehold  property, 
was  changed  into  benefices  and  fiefs,  and  it  became  a  legal 

maxim  that  there  was  no  land  without  a  lord, 
without!  lord  "  ^^s  was  never  quite  true,  as  there  was  always 

some  land  which  was  held  allodially.  But  the 
theory  was  framed  that  the  king  held  his  kingdom  from 
God,  and  the  vassals  held  directly  or  indirectly  from  the 

1  The  words  benefice  and  fief  are  used  here  as  synonyms.  In  the 
middle  ages  each  word  was  used  with  several  different  meanings.  The 
most  usual  definition  for  a  fief  was  land  for  which  the  vassal,  or  heredi- 
tary holder,  paid  to  the  direct  owner,  or  lord,  services  of  a  particular 


J 


Subinfeudation, 


FEUDALISM 


king.  By  the  time  that  feudal  customs  had  become  thor- 
oughly established — that  is,  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 
turies—  there  was  no  ab- 
solute  ownership  of  knd ; 
each  vassal  had  merely  the 
use  of  his  benefice  or  fief. 
Land-holding  formed  the 
main  basis  of  feudal  obli- 
gations; but  the  old  per- 
sonal bond  of  service  and 
loyalty,  represented  by 
commendation,  never  dis- 
appeared entirely. 

When   a    lord    had    a 
large  amount  of  land  he 

kept    such    a 

portion  of  it 
as  was  necessary  for  his 
own  support,  and  divided 
the  rest  into  fiefs  in  order 
to  gain  followers.  Thus 
a  count  might  receive  a 
county  from  the  king  for 
his  services ;  he  would 
then  gradually  divide  up 
his  county  into  larger  or 
smaller  parcels,  and  grant 
most  of  these  as  fiefs  to 
others ;  they  in  turn  might 
grant  the  whole  or  por- 
tions of  their  fiefs  to  oth- 
ers, and  the  latter  would 

be  the  vassals  of  the  one  from  whom  they  received  the 
land — i.  e.,  vassals  of  the  vassals  of  the  count,  who  was 

kind,  such  as  military  service.    A  benefice  differed  from  a  fief  in  not 
being  hereditary  (Luchaire). 


CAROLINGIAN  EMPEROR. 


44  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

himself  a  vassal  of  the  king.  This  process  is  called  sub- 
infeudatipn. 

I        The  third  of  the  elements  which  shaped  European  feu- 

i    dalism  was  the  immunity.     As  the  kings  became  weaker  it 

V^       t  was  impossible  for  them  to  repress  disorder  and 

crime ;  they  were  unable  to  hold  courts  and 

punish   offenders  in   the   various   parts   of  the   kingdom. 

/Consequently  it  became  the  custom  of  the  king  to  dele- 

f  gate  his  authority  in  this  respect  to  his  vassals.     They  were 

permitted  to  hold  courts  on  their  own  estates,  and  the  king 

promised  that  no  royal  official  should  enter  their  fiefs  to 

hold  court.     This  privilege  was  called  an  immunity.     The 

vassals  valued  this  immunity,  because  the  penalty  for  almost 

all  wrongdoing  consisted  of  fines,  usually  in  money,  which 

went  to  the  one  holding  the  court.     Thus  an  immunity  not 

only  added  to  the  vassal's  power,  but  was  also  a  source  of 

income.     A  typical  formula  of  immunity  reads  :  "  We  have 

seen  fit  to  grant  to  that  apostolic  man,  Lord ,  Bishop 

of ;  that  in  the  lands  of  the  Church  of  that  Lord,  no 

public  judge  shall  at  any  time  presume  to  enter  for  the 
hearing  of  causes  or  for  the  exaction  of  payments ;  but  the 
prelate  himself  or  his  successors  .  .  .  shall  be  able  to  rule 
over  this.  We  require,  therefore,  that  neither  you,  nor  any 
other  public  judicial  power,  shall  presume  at  any  time  to 
enter  into  the  lands  of  the  same  Church  anywhere  in  our 
kingdom,  either  those  granted  by  royal  bounty  or  by  that  of 
private  persons  or  those  which  shall  in  future  be  granted  ; 
either  for  the  sake  of  hearing  altercations  or  to  exact  fines 
for  any  causes  or  to  obtain  sureties.  But  whatever  the 
Treasury  could  expect  either  of  fines  or  other  things  either 
from  freemen  or  from  servants  and  other  nations  who  are 
within  the  fields  or  boundaries  or  dwelling  upon  the  lands 
of  the  aforesaid  Church ;  by  our  indulgence  for  our  future 
welfare,  shall  be  profitable  for  the  expenses  of  the  same 
Church  by  the  hand  of  those  ruling  it,  forever."1  It  was 

1  See  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  3. 


FEUDALISM  45 

v_ 

usual  in  granting  a  fief  to  include  the  immunity,  and  such 
a  combined  grant  reads  :  "  We  have  decreed  that  so  and  so 
should  have  conceded  to  him  such  and  such  a  place  in  its 
entirety,  with  the  lands,  houses,  buildings,  villeins,  slaves, 
vineyards,  woods,  fields,  meadows,  pastures,  waters  or  water- 
courses, grist-mills,  additions,  appurtenances,  or  any  kind 
of  men  who  are  subjected  to  our  Treasury  who  dwell  there  ; 
in  entire  immunity,  and  without  the  entrance  of  any  one 
of  the  judges  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  pleas  of  any 
kind  of  causes.  Thus  he  may  have,  hold  and  possess  it  in 
proprietary  right  and  without  expecting  the  entrance  of 
any  of  the  judges ;  and  may  leave  the  possession  of  it  to 
his  posterity,  by  the  aid  of  God,  from  our  bounty,  or  to 
whom  he  will ;  and  by  our  permission  he  shall  have  free 
power  to  do  whatever  he  may  wish  with  it  for  the  future."  * 
By  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  feudalism  had  become 
established  throughout  the  lands  which  had  formed  the 
Carolingian  empire.  Practically  the  whole  ter- 
The  age  of  ritorv  was  divided  into  fiefs  or'  benefices :  all 

feudalism,  J 

freemen  were   either   Vassals  or  lords ;    many 

Were  vassals  and  at  the  same  time  lords ;  on  almost  every 
fief  the  possessor  had  the  right  of  immunity.     This  condi-v 
tion  of  affairs  continued  for  several  centuries.     The  period  J 
from   the  ninth  to  the  fourteenth  century  is  called  fre-/ 
quently  the  age  of  feudalism. 

Generally  a  lord  had  a  number  of  vassals,  and  these,  ^\ 
together  with  their  lord,  or  suzerain,  formed  a  feudal  group./ 
When  the  vassals  served  as  soldiers  the  feudal 
group  became  an  army  ;  in  times  of  peace  the 
group  formed  a  little  state.     The  lord,  with  the 
aid  and  advice  of  his  vassals,  administered  justice  and  gov- 
erned the  fief.     The  inhabitants  of  his  lands  owed  service 
only  to  the  lord ;  except  for  the  Church  they  were  prac- 
tically free  from  all  other  authority. 

1  See  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  3. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


The  vassals  were  the  most  important  class,  but  they 
formed  only  a  small  part  of  the  population.  They  were 
all  held  to  be  noblemen  and  they  were  all  war- 
riors ;  consequently  others  had  to  support  them. 
The  others  were  the  villeins  and  the  serfs,  who  cultivated 
the  soil,  or  who  carried  on  the  handicrafts  and  trade  in  the 
cities,  and 


Vassals, 


The  villeins  and 
serfs. 


nished  the 
subsistence 
whole    group 
were    subject 


by  their 
labor  fur- 
means  of 
for  the 
They 
to  the 


lord  or  vassal  on  whose 
estate  they  lived,  and 
from  whom  they  held 
their  lands,  but  not  by 
feudal  tenure.  For, 
instead  of  aiding  in 
warfare  or  by  coun- 
sel, they  paid  rent  in 


STONE  HURLER. 


money  and  produce  and  also  worked  for  their  lord.  Their 
life  will  be  described  later.1  In  addition  to  the  nobles, 
who  formed  the  ruling  class  and  did  the  fighting,  and 
the  serfs  in  the  country  or  towns,  there  was  a  third 
class  in  the  community,  the  members  of  the  clergy.  Al- 
though they,  as  well  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities,  be- 
longed originally  either  to  the  nobility  or  the 
peasantry,  they  were  in  some  ways  distinct  from 
either.  The  chief  officials  of  the  Church  were  the  equals  of 
t]ie_nobilityj  the  parish  priests  were  in  many  respects  the 
equals  of  the  peasantry  among  whom  they  lived.  But  no 
impassable  barrier  existed  between  the  Pope  and  the  hum- 
blest member  of  the  clergy.  By  ability  the  son  of  a  serf 


Clergy, 


See  Chap.  XIV. 


FEUDALISM  47 

might  rise  to  be  Pope.  The  Church  was  always  democratic 
in  theory  and  offered  a  chance  for  any  bright  boy  to  rise  to 
the  highest  rank. 

Each  vassal  was  obliged  to  do  homage  and  take  the 
oath  of  fealty  to  his  lord.  The  act  of  homage  was  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  count  asked  if  he  was  willing  to 
become  completely  his  man,  and  the  other 
replied,  '  I  am  willing  '  ;  and  with  clasped 
hands,  surrounded  by  the  hands  of  the  count,  the  vassal 
and  lord  were  bound  together  by  a  kiss."1  Homage  was 
followed  and  completed  by  the  oath  of  fealty.  "  I  promise 
on  my  faith  that  I  will  in  future  be  faithful  to  Count  Will- 
iam, and  will  observe  my  homage  to  him  completely  against 
all  persons  in  good  faith  and  without  deceit."  2  In  addition 
the  vassal  usually  gave  to  his  lord  some  object  as  a  visible 
symbol  of  his  obligations—  e.  g.,  a  weapon  such  as  a  sword 
or  a  lance,  a  horse,  or  some  article  of  wearing  apparel. 

In  addition  to  the  general  obligation  of  faithful  ser- 
vice contained  in  his  oath  of  fealty,  the  vassal  owed  to  his 
lord  other  very  definite  services.  In  the  first 
the^assalowed  P^ace  ^e  mus^  fight  for  him  when  summoned. 
Ordinarily  he  was  obliged  to  serve  at  his  own 
expense  in  the  lord's  army  for  forty  days  each  year  ;  if  the 
lord  wished  him  to  serve  for  a  longer  time  the  lord  must 
pay  his  expenses.  In  case  of  a  foreign  war  he  was  not 
obliged  to  serve  outside  of  the  kingdom  after  forty  days 
were  completed,  unless  he  was  willing  to  do  so.  In  the 
second  place  the  vassal  must  aid  his  lord  in  holding  court. 
When  he  was  summoned  he  must  act  as  judge  or  assistant 
in  trying  cases.  If  he  was  engaged  as  plaintiff  or  defend- 
ant in  a  lawsuit  he  must  take  the  suit  to  the  lord's  court 
and  submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  lord  and  his  own  peers 
—  i.  e.,  his  fellow  vassals.  InJkhj^Jhird  jplace  thejrassal 


1  Homage  and  Fealty  to  the  Count  of  Flanders,  A.  D.  1127.    See 
Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  3.  *  Ibid. 


48  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

must  assist  the  lord  with  his  advice.  Whenever  he  was  sum- 
moned he  must  go  and,  with  the  other  vassals,  form  a  coun- 
cil of  state  to  deliberate  on  all  questions  of  common  interest. 
In  theory  the  vassal  was  not  supposed  to  be  taxed  by 
the  lord,  for,  as  a  noble  holding  his  fief  by  feudal  tenure, 

he  was  free  from  all  money  payments.     This 

The  feudal  aids,  j-' l-      4.-         v  I  *      *  i 

was  the  great  distinction  between  leudal   or 

noble  tenures  and  villein  or  ignoble  tenures  in  which  regu- 
lar payments  had  to  be  made.  But  cases  might  arise  when 
the  vass.'il  was  obliged  to  furnish  his  lord  with  money ; 
such  payments  were  called  aids  and  were  always  considered 
exceptional.  The  theory  was  that  when  the  lord  was  in 
great  need  of  money  the  vassal  by  the  oath  of  fealty  was 
obliged  to  aid  him.  The  three  customary  aids  everywhere 
were :  1.  Contributions  to  pay  the  expenses  incurred  in 
knighting  the  lord's  eldest  son.1  2.  Contributions  to  fur- 
nish a  dowry  for  the  lord's  eldest  daughter.  3.  Contribu- 
tions to  pay  the  lord's  ransom  if  he  was  made  a  prisoner. 
In  addition,  when  it  became  the  custom  to  go  on  a  crusade, 
the  vassal  was  expected  to  aid  the  lord  in  the  cost  of  equip- 
ment for  his  journey.  On  some  fiefs  the  vassal  was  also 
required  to  contribute  toward  the  expense  when  his  lord 
was  summoned  to  visit  the  overlord  or  when  the  lord  went 
on  a  pilgrimage  to  Eome.  In  England  only  the  three  cus- 
tomary aids  were  recognized. 

(The  lord  was  held  by  the  feudal  contract  to  certain 
obligations  toward  his  vassal.     The  two  most   important 
were   that   he   should   see  that  his  vassal  re- 
^f  a]jions  of     ceived  just  treatment,  and  that  he  should  pro- 
tect his  vassal  in  the  enjoyment  of  his  fief. 
The  lords   granted  fiefs  for  the   purpose  of  securing 
service  from  their  vassals.      If  a   vassal  died,  leaving  a 
son  who  was  old  enough,  the  latter  received 
the  fief,  but  he  was  expected  to  pay  for  the 



1  See  Chap.  XIII. 


FEUDALISM  49 

privilege.  This  payment  was  called  a  relief,  and  frequently 
amounted  to  the  income  from  the  fief  for  one  year. 

If,  when  the  father  died,  the  son  was  not  yet  of  age,  the 

lord  managed  the  fief  until  the  son  became  of  age.   During 

the  interval  the  lord  was  expected  to  support 

Wardship,  ,,       ,     .      ,  ,,    ., 

the  heir,  but  all  the  income  from  the  fief  was 
his.  This  arose  from  the  fact  that  the  fief  owed  to  the  lord 
the  service  of  a  full-grown  man,  and  consequently  when 
the  heir  was  too  young  the  income  belonged  to  the  lord. 

If  the  vassal  left  a  widow  or  a  daughter,  and  no  son,  the 
widow  or  daughter  passed  under  the  control  of  the  lord. 

He  could  give  them  in  marriage  to  any  one 
Control  of  whom  he  chose,  for  the  fief  must  furnish  a 

marriages, 

man  tor  his  service ;  ana  11  the  widow,  or  heir- 
ess, were  allowed  to  marry  any  one  whom  she  chose,  the 
fief  might  pass  into  the  hands  of  an  enemy,  and  the  lord 
would  thus  be  deprived  of  his  just  due.  On  the  English 
Exchequer  Eolls  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
there  were  many  items  like  the  following :  "  Alice,  countess 
of  Warwick,  renders  account  of  £1,000  and  10  palfreys  to 
be  allowed  to  remain  a  widow  as  long  as  she  pleases  and 
not  to  be  forced  to  marry  by  the  king." 

"  Hawisa,  who  was  wife  of  William  Fitz  Eobert,  renders 
account  of  130  marks  and  4  palfreys  that  she  may  have 
peace  from  Peter  of  Borough  to  whom  the  king  has  given 
permission  to  marry  her ;  and  that  she  may  not  be  com- 
pelled to  marry."1 

There  were   many  minor  obligations  rising  from  the 

feudal  relations,  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  describe 

them  all.     They  varied  in  different  countries 

Lack  of  system,  and  different  fiefg5  for  the  most  striking  fact 

about  feudalism  is  the  great  diversity  in  customs  which  ex- 
isted at  the  same  time — there  was  no  system.  Further- 
more, there  was  no  orderly  hierarchy.  The  king  might 

1  See  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iv,  No.  3. 
5 


I 


50  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

hold  a  fief  from  one  of  his  own  subjects.  A  knight  might 
hold  a  fief  from  a  dozen  different  lords ;  in  such  a  case 
he  owed  obligations  to  all,  but  personal  service  to  only 
one,  who  was  called  his  liege  lord. 

As  is  evident  from  the  description  that  has  been  given, 

feudalism  included  a  plan  of  government  and  a  system  of 

land-holding.    A  man's  position  in  society  was 

Ffff^T4    fixed  by  his  feudal  relations.     So  feudalism 

feudalism/'  J 

is  often  used  as  a  collective  name  for  all  the 
social  and  governmental  relations  which  existed  in  western 
Europe  from  the  ^ninth^  to  the  fourteenth  century.  The 
Church  was  no  exception,  as  its  lands  were  held  feudally, 
and  for  each  fief  the  abbot  or  bishop  must  furnish  one  or 
more  soldiers  to  Ms  lord.  The  surplus  lands  of  the  Church 
were  granted  to  nobles  as  benefices  or  fiefs.  The  abbot  or 
bishop  on  his  fief  performed  all  the  duties  that  the  lay  lord 
performed  under  similar  circumstances.  In  the  cities  espe- 
cially the  bishops  had  feudal  rights,  holding  the  courts, 
coining  money,  and  taxing  the  merchants  and  artisans. 

REFERENCES 

Beginnings  of  the  feudal  system:  Emerton,  Introduction,  chap, 
xv.  Adams,  Civilization,  pp.  194-217.  Feudal  institutions:  Emer- 
ton, Europe,  chap.  xiv.  Adams,  Civilization,  pp.  217-226. 


CHAPTER    VI 
The  German  Kingdom  (to  1122) 

SUMMARY. — The  early  kings  of  Germany  were  occupied  in  making 
their  power  effective  over  the  different  tribes  and  in  repelling  invasions. 
Under  Otto  the  Great  both  tasks  had  been  so  nearly  accomplished  that 
he  turned  his  attention  to  Italy.  The  local  conditions  there  made  it 
easy  for  him  to  obtain  the  imperial  crown.  His  son  and  grandson 
wasted  the  resources  of  Germany  in  attempting  to  rule  Italy.  The  suc- 
ceeding kings  were  forced  to  devote  their  energies  to  reestablishing  the 
royal  authority  in  Germany.  This  was  done  so  thoroughly  that  the 
power  of  Henry  III  was  greater  than  that  of  any  preceding  king.  In 
order  to  reform  the  Church  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  Italy.  The 
papacy  became  strong,  and  endeavored  to  free  the  Church  from  all  im- 
perial control.  This  led  to  the  investiture  struggle  which  weakened 
Germany  and  resulted  in  an  indecisive  compromise. 

BY  the  treaty  of  Verdun,  in  843,  the  separation  of  the 
empire  into  three  kingdoms  was  recognized.  Of  these  the 

East-Frankish,  or  German,  seemed  in  some  re- 
East-Frankisli  Spects  the  weakest,  as  its  inhabitants  were  the 

least  advanced  in  civilization  and  were  divided 
into  separate  peoples — Saxons,  Franconians,  Alemanni  or 
Swabians,  and  Bavarians.  Each  had  its  own  distinctive 
customs,  and  at  the  head  of  each  was  a  duke,  who  was  its 
hereditary  sovereign.  Franconia  and  Saxony  were  the  most 
powerful  duchies. 

The  last  of  the  German  Carolingians  died 

mini'          in  9ilj  and  the  dute  °^  Franconia'  Conrad  I> 
was  chosen  king  by  the  nobles.     But  in  his 

reign  of  seven  years  he  was  unable  to  make  the  other  dukes 
obey  him  or  to  check  the  invasions  of  the  Hungarians.    On 

51 


52  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

his  death-bed,  realizing  the  need  of  a  strong  ruler,  he  desig- 
nated his  most  powerful  rival  and  enemy  as  his  successor. 

The  latter,  Henry  I,  called  the  Fowler,  spent  almost 
the  whole  of  his  reign  in  wars  against  the  Slavs,  Danes, 
Bohemians,  Poles,  Hungarians,  and  other  in- 
crif^jm  vaders.     On  the  frontiers  of  his  kingdom  he 

constructed  many  castles  as  places  of  refuge 
and  centers  of  defense  against  sudden  raids.  He  built  and 
fortified  so  many  towns  that  he  was  called  Henry  "  the 
builder  of  cities."  Instead  of  using  foot-soldiers,  he  formed 
an  army  of  light  cavalry,  which  could  move  with  great  ra- 
pidity. In  933  he  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  upon  the  Hun- 
garians, who  were  the  most  dreaded  of  all  the  invaders.  In 
a  war  with  the  king  of  France,  Charles  the  Simple,  he  con- 
quered Lorraine.  His  successes  in  war  made  him  both  re- 
spected and  feared  by  the  dukes,  so  that  in  the  last  years 
of  his  life  he  was  universally  obeyed,  and  was  the  king  of 
Germany  in  fact,  as  well  as  in  name. 

Before  his  death  Henry  recommended  the  nobles  to 
choose  his  son  Otto  for  their  king.     Consequently  the  no- 
bles and  bishops  met  at  Aachen  and  proclaimed 
936-973  Otto,  "proposed  by  his  father,  chosen  by  God, 

and  made  king  by  the  princes."  At  first  the 
dukes  were  submissive  to  the  new  king,  but  as  they  were 
anxious  to  regain  their  former  independence  they  engaged 
in  frequent  rebellions.  Otto  conquered  the  dukes  and,  in 
order  to  prevent  future  rebellions,  took  away  some  of  their 
sowers.  Moreover,  he  did  not  allow  the  people  to  choose 
their  own  dukes,  but  took  the  appointment  into  his  own 
hand^  He  also  created  new  officials,  the  counts  palatine, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  watch  over  the  king's  interest  and  to 
keep  an  eye  on  the  dukes. 

Otto  gave  the  most  important  bishoprics  to  his  own 
relatives,  and  drew  the  leading  members  of  the  Church 
into  the  service  of  the  state.  His  brother  Bruno  was  made 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  many  of  his  most  important 


• 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Otto  and  the 
Church, 


officials  were  bishops  or  abbots.     His  policy  in  the  govern- 

ment of  Germany  was  to  increase  the  power  and  wealth  of 
the  clergy  in  order  to  offset  the  power  of  the 
dukes.  On  the  other  hand,  he  insisted  that 
the  clergy  should  perform  all  their  duties  as 

feudal  lords;  as  the  bishops  and  abbots  held  fiefs  they 

were  obliged  to  lead  their  vassals  to  the  royal  army  and  to 

assist  the  king  with  their  advice  and  contributions  when- 

ever their  aid  was  needed. 
The  first  twenty  years  of 

his  reign  were  occupied  main- 
ly in  organizing 
his  kingdom  and 
in  checking  in- 

vasions.    The  dukes,  in  their 

revolts,  had  sought  aid  from 

the  Hungarians,  and  in  954 

a  great  invasion   had   swept 

over  the   whole    breadth    of 

the  kingdom.    In  $553  on  the 

banks  of  the  river  Lech,  Ot- 

to annihilated   a  Hungarian 

army,  and  his  victory  was  so 

decisive  that  their  incursions 


ceased. 
His 


OTTO  THE  GREAT  AND  HIS  WIFE, 
EDITH. 


successes    made    his 
power  secure  in  his  own  king- 

dom; but  Otto  was  ambitious  and  the  condition 

of  affairs  in  Italy  led  him  to  seek  the  imPerial 
crown.     For   a   century  the  title  of  emperor 

had  been  held  by  unimportant  rulers  who  had  received 
this  dignity  from  the  hands  of  the  Pope  ;  but  no  one  of 
them  had  possessed  any  real  authority  outside  of  his  own 
petty  kingdom.  In  Italy,  as  elsewhere,  the  real  power  was 
in  the  hands  of  feudal  nobles.  Most  of  the  south  was 
nominally  in  subjection  to  the  eastern  empire,  but  portions 


THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM  55 

of  it  had  been  conquered  by  the  Saracens.  At  Eome  rival 
nobles  fought  for  the  control  of  the  city,  and  the  success- 
ful party  treated  the  papacy  as  a  part  of  the  spoils. 

In  951  the  aid  of  Otto  was  sought  by  one  of  the  con- 
tending parties.  He  made  an  expedition  into  Italy,  but 
before  much  was  accomplished  he  was  called  back  to  Ger- 
many by  a  rebellion.  In  961  he  made  a  second  expedition, 
and  was  crowned  at  Milan  with  the  iron  crown 1  of  Lom- 
bardy.  He  then  proceeded  to  Eome,  which  he  entered  with- 
out opposition,  and  on  February  2,  962,  was 
emp°eror!ade  crowned  emperor  of  the  Roman  Empire.  By 
the  men  of  his  day  he  was  regarded  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Augustus,  Trajan,  Constantine,  and  Charles  the 
Great.  But  the  empire  was  something  very  different  from 
the  old  Eoman  Empire  or  the  empire  of  Charles.  It  was 
a  union  of  Italy  and  Germany,  and  is  best  described  as 
the  Eoman  Empire  of  the  German  nation.  Still,  much  of 
the  prestige  of  the  old  Eoman  Empire  survived,  and  the 
emperor  was  regarded  in  western  Europe  as  the  head  of 
the  Christian  world. 

His  son  and  grandson,  Otto  II  and  Otto  III,  spent  most 
of  their  time  in  Italy  endeavoring  to  make  Eome  their 
Otto  II,  capital  and  to  rule  as  emperors.  They  neg- 

973-982  j  otto  lected  Germany  to  a  great  extent,  using  it 
ni,  9f  102,  majn]v  as  a  source  Of  supplies  from  which  to 
draw  men  and  money  for  their  Italian  campaigns.  Conse- 
quently, Germany  suffered  again  from  the  invasions  of  the 
Danes  and  Slavs.  Hungary,  which  had  been  subject  to 
Otto  the  Great,  became  an  independent  kingdom.  The 
German  nobles  began  new  rebellions,  and  the  country  was 
a  prey  to  private  warfare. 

Henry  II  Henry  II  and  Conrad  II,  who  were  kings 

1002-1024,       in  succession  after  Otto  III,  instead  of  being 

1  So  called  because  it  was  said  to  contain  a  circular  band  made  out 
of  a  nail  from  the  cross  on  which  Christ  was  crucified. 


56  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

dazzled  by  a  dream  of  ruling  as  Roman  emperors,  tried  to 
be  strong  kings  in  Germany.  Each  one  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  had  to  put  down  rebellions  of  the  nobles,  and 
had  great  difficulty  in  preventing  private  wars  among  his 
vassals.  Each  one  was  crowned  emperor  at  Rome  after 
he  had  succeeded  in  establishing  order  at 
1024*1039,  home-  Conrad  II  added  the  kingdom  of  Bur- 
gundy to  the  German  possessions,  and  made 
the  king's  power  so  fully  respected  that  his  son  was  not 
troubled  by  rebellions. 

The  latter,  Henry  III,  was  able,  pious,  and  successful. 
He  made  Poland,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary  subject  nations, 
and  under  his  rule  Germany  became  stronger 
1039-1056,  *kan  ever  Before.  He  worked  earnestly  to  raise 
the  clergy" to  "a  higher  moral  standard,  and  en- 
couraged education  and  the  development  of  the  arts.  Hav- 
ing succeeded  so  well  at  home,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
Italy.  That  country,  left  mainly  to  itself  by  the  preceding 
kings,  was  in  an  evil  plight.  Rome,  in  particular,  was  given 
over  to  the  rule  of  unprincipled  men,  and  unworthy  popes 
had  disgraced  the  apostolic  see.  In  1046  there  were  three 
rival  popes,  each  of  whom  claimed  to  be  the  successor  of 
St.  Peter.  Henry  caused  all  three  to  be  deposed  and  a  Ger- 
man bishop  to  be  elected  in  their  stead,  and  during  the  re- 
maining years  of  his  reign  he  nominated  the  popes.  Un- 
fortunately for  his  aims  and  for  the  prosperity  of  Germany, 
he  died  in  the  prime  of  life  when  he  was  only  thirty-nine 
years  old,  and  left  as  his  heir  a  boy  of  six,  Henry  IV. 

The  rebellions  in  Germany  began  again,  as  the  nobles 
sought  to  regain  their  former  independence.  The  queen- 
HeM  IV  mother  who  had  acted  as  regent  lost  all  power 
1056-1106, and  and  withdrew  from  all  participation  in  politics 
the  Saxons,  or  government,  and  the  nobles  who  ruled  in 
the  name  of  the  king  aroused  bitter  enmity  by  unwise  ac- 
tions. The  inhabitants  of  Saxony  were  especially  dis- 
contented, partly  on  account  of  actual  wrongs  and  partly 


THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM  57 

because  of  dangers  which  they  imagined.  Henry,  having 
reached  the  age  of  manhood,  was  ruling  in  his  own  name 
when  the  storm  broke.  The  Saxons  rose  in  such  a  sudden, 
unexpected  revolt  that  the  king,  who  was  in  their  land, 
barely  escaped  with  his  life.  Many  of  the  other  nobles 
joined  the  Saxons,  and  the  rebellion  became  so  formidable 
that  Henry  was  forced  to  treat  with  the  rebels  and  to  sub- 
mit to  humiliating  conditions,  in  February,  1074.  But  at 
the  moment  when  his  position  was  most  desperate  the  pros- 
perous cities  in  the  Rhine  valley  declared  for  him,  and  he 
was  able  to  induce  the  nobles  in  the  south  of  Germany  to 
remain  neutral.  Even  then  he  had  to  agree  that  all  the 
royal  fortresses  in  Saxony  should  be  destroyed  by  the  Sax 
ons  themselves.  The  Saxons  razed  the  fortresses,  dese- 
crated the  royal  tombs,  and  destroyed  a  church.  Their  vio- 
lence  and  sacrilege  aided  the  king,  who  was  able,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1074,  to  raise  an  army  and  to  gain  a  great  victory 
over  them.  They  were  obliged  to  submit  to  Henry  and 
to  accept  his  conditions.  His  power  was  recognized,  al- 
though unwillingly  on  the  part  of  some,  in  every  part  of 
Germany,  so  that  for  the  first  time  he  was  king  in  fact  as 
well  as  in  name. 

Just  at  this  time,  when  he  was  glorying  in  his  victory, 
he  was  suddenly  called  to  face  a  new  danger  and  to  begin  a 

struggle  which  lasted  the  rest  of  his  life.  In 
Church!"1  Of  ^  or(ier  to  understand  nis  position  it  is  necessary 

to  go  back  and  to  trace  the  history  of  the 
papacy  since  1046.  After  causing  the  unworthy  claimants 
to  be  deposed,  Henry  III  had  nominated  one  German  Pope 
after  another.  All  had  worked  for  the  reform  of  the 
Church  and  had  been  aided  by  Henry.  They  had  found 
the  Church  offices  filled  with  bishops,  abbots,  and  priests 
who  were  guilty  of  simony1 — that  is,  they  had  secured 

1  Simony  is  coined  from  the  name  of  Simon  Magus,  who  attempted 
to  buy  from  the  apostles  the  power  of  bestowing  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  See  Acts,  chap,  viii,  verses  9-24. 


58 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


their  positions  by  purchase  either  directly  or  indirectly. 
The  Church  was  so  wealthy  and  had  such  great  power  that 
its  offices  were  sought  by  ambitious  and  greedy  men.  Even 
worthy  and  honorable  men  bought  positions,  hoping  to  be 


GERMAN  TAPESTRY,  TENTH  TO  TWELFTH  CENTURY. 

able  through  their  offices  to  work  reform.  The  kings  and 
nobles  often  had  great  influence  in  the  appointment  to 
Church  positions,  and  gave  these  to  their  favorites  or  sold 
them  to  the  highest  bidder.  Simony  was  the  greatest  evil 
in  the  Church. 


THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM  59 

During  his  lifetime  Henry  III  and  the  popes  worked 
together  to  reform  and  strengthen  the  Church ;  after  his 
death  the  popes  and  their  advisers  continued 
the  same  course-  Hildebrand  was  the  most 
zealous  and  able  of  the  reform  party.  Of 
humble  birth,  he  had  been  educated  in  a  monastery  and 
had  entered  the  service  of  the  Church ;  by  his  ability  he 
had  risen  rapidly  until  he  was  made  a  cardinal  and  placed 
in  charge  of  the  papal  treasury.  He  had  great  influence 
in  all  matters  of  papal  policy,  and  finally  in  1073  was  made 
Pope,  taking  the  name  of  Gregory  VII.  He  made  every 
eifort  to  root  out  simony  from  the  Church.  In  order  to  do 
this  he  felt  it_ essential  to  take  away  from  lay- 
men  a^  Power  i11  the  appointment  of  church 
officials.  Consequently  he  issued  a  decree  for- 
bidding lay  investiture — i.  _e.r  taking  away  from  all  laymen 
thfi_jppwer  to  invest  a  priest  with  his  clerical  office  or  to 
bestow  any  position  in  the  Church.  This  was  a  direct  blow 
at  the  power  of  Henry  IV,  who  had  been  making  these 
appointments  just  as  his  predecessor  had  done.  Further- 
more, the  leading  bishops  of  Germany  were  also  the  prin- 
cipal officers  of  the  state  and  held  some  of  the  most  exten- 
sive and  most  important  fiefs  in  the  kingdom.  If  the  king 
could  exercise  no  control  over  their  selection  a  large  part 
of  his  power  would  be  taken  away.  The  real  difficulty  was 
due  to  the  twofold  position  of  the  bishops  who  were  serv- 
ants of  both  the  Church  and  the  state. 

Henry,  flushed  with  pride  by  his  victory  over  the  Saxons 

and  the  great  power  which  he  had  won,  was  intensely  angry 

when  he  received  the  news  of  the  Pope's  action. 

He  wrote  to  Gregory,  refusing  to  recognize  him 

as  Pope  and  ordering  him  to  relinquish  the  office  which 

he  had  seized  wrongfully.     At  the  same  time  he  caused  all 

the  bishops,  whom  he  had  summoned  to  a  council,  to  write 

a  similar  letter. 

Gregory  replied  by  excommunicating  Henry.     This  ex- 


60  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

communication  caused  the  rebellions  in  Germany  to  begin 
again,  as  many  of  the  king's  subjects  considered  that  they 
were  released  by  the  Pope  from  their  oath  of 
allegiance.  Henry  was  soon  deserted  by  almost 
all  the  leading  nobles  and  bishops,  for  many 
of  the  latter  had  signed  the  letter  to  Gregory  only  under 
compulsion.  The  king  attempted  in  vain  to  regain  his 
power ;  the  most  that  he  could  secure  was  a  period  of 
delay  from  the  nobles  who  had  proposed  to  depose  him. 
Finally  it  was  agreed  that  he  should  live  as  a  private  citizen 
until  he  was  released  from  the  ban  of  excommunication ;  if 
he  was  not  absolved  within  a  year  he  was  to  be  deposed  and 
a  new  king  elected. 

Gregory  and  the  nobles  entered  into  an  agreement  to 
take  no  action  except  in  common.  The  Pope  promised  to 
come  to  Germany  and  there  decide  upon  the 
course  to  be  pursued  with  relation  to  Henry. 
The  latter  was  determined  to  save  his  crown  at  any  cost 
and  feared  to  have  the  nobles  and  the  Pope  meet.  Accord- 
ingly he  determined  to  set  off  in  the  dead  of  winter  to  cross 
the  Alps  and  seek  absolution  from  Gregory.  He  escaped 
by  stealth  from  the  careless  guardianship  of  the  nobles  and 
hastened  to  Canossa,  where  Gregory  had  stopped  on  his  way 
to  Germany.  There  the  king  was  compelled  to  remain 
outside  the  castle  gate  for  three  days  before  he  could  get 
an  audience  with  the  Pope.  Each  day,  wearing  a  "  peni- 
tent's shirt,"  he  stood  for  several  hours,  proclaiming  his 
repentance  and  begging  for  absolution.  No  king  of  Ger- 
many had  ever  suffered  such  a  humiliation.  At  length 
the  Pope  freed  him  from  the  ban  of  excommunication. 

Now  that  he  was  released  from  the  Church's 
1    censure,  Henry  soon  secured  support  both  in 
Italy  and  Germany.     The  "investiture  strug- 
gle "  dragged  on  for  half  a  century,  as  neither  Pope  nor 
king  would  abandon  what  he  believed  to  be  his  rights. 
Gregory  VII,  who  died  in  exile,  is  reported  to  have  said, 


THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM  61 

"I  have  loved  righteousness  and  hated  iniquity,  there- 
fore I  die  in  exile."  The  sons  of  Henry  revolted  against 
him;  the  king  died,  deserted  by  all,  and  his  body  lay  for 
five  years  without  Christian  burial.  Henry  V,  one  of  the 

sons  who  had  revolted  against  him,  after  ob- 
no£HLi25  taining  the  kingdom,  took  the  same  position 

in  regard  to  the  question  of  investiture  that 
his  father  had  done.  Germany  was  almost  ruined  by  the 
fighting  between  the  contending  parties,  for  in  every  por- 
tion of  the  land  the  people  were  divided  into  two  hostile 
camps.  Anti-kings  and  anti-popes  were  elected.  Nobles 
were  arrayed  against  the  peasants  and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
cities.  The  parish  priests,  as  a  rule,  sided  with  the  king ;  the 
bishops  with  the  Pope.  Members  of  the  same  family  were 
armed  against  one  another. 

Finally,  in  1122,.  Henry  V  and  Pope  Calixtus  II  agreed 
upon  a  compromise,  known  as  the  Concordat  of  Worms. 

The  bishops  everywhere  were  to  be  elected  by 
Concordat  of  ^he  clergy  and  not  to  be  appointed  by  the  king ; 

but  in  Germany  the  elections  were  to  take 
place  in  the  king's  presence,  and  in  case  of  disputed  elec- 
tions he  was  given  practically  the  power  of  decision.  After 
the  election  the  bishops  were  to  be  invested  by  Henry  with 
their  feudal  rights.  The  election  of  bishops  in  Burgundy 
and  Italy  was  to  be  wholly  free  from  any  interference  on 
the  part  of  the  king.  The  real  importance  of  this  compro- 
mise lay  in  the  fact  that  the  Pope  and  the  king  endeav- 
ored to  distinguish  between  the  various  duties  of  bishops. 
The  Church  was  to  elect  its  own  officials ;  the  king  was 
not  to  invest  them  with  their  spiritual  offices,  but  only  with 
their  lay  fiefs.  The  Pope  had  gained  a  part  of  what  he 
desired ;  Henry  had  lost  some  of  the  powers  exercised  by 
former  kings  This  ended  the  investiture  struggle. 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


REFERENCES 

Otto  the  Great  as  Emperor :  Henderson,  Germany  in  the  Middle 
Ages  (New  York,  1894),  pp.  134-138.  German  Empire  at  Height  of 
Power:  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy  (New  York,  1J98),  chap.  iii. 
Henry  III  and  Conditions  in  Germany:  Henderson,  Germany,  pp. 
174-176.  The  Empire  and  Papacy:  Adams,  Civilization,  chap.  x. 
Investiture  Struggle :  Tout,  chap,  vi ;  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
pp.  157-160.  Documents  Relating  to  Investiture  Struggle:  Hen- 
derson, Select  Documents  (New  York,  1892),  pp.  365-409. 

KINGS  OF  GERMANY,  887-1125 


Arnulf,  887-899. 

Lewis,  the  Child,  899-911. 

Conrad  I,  911-918. 

Henry  I,  the  Fowler,  918-936. 

Otto  I,  the  Great,  936-973. 

Otto  II,  973-983. 


Otto  III,  983-1002. 

Henry  II,  the  Saint,  1002-1024. 

Conrad  II,  the  Salic,  1024-1039. 

Henry  III,  the  Black,  1039-1056. 

Henry  IV,  1056-1106. 

Henry  V,  1106-1125. 


POPES,  795-1124 


S.  Leo  III,  795-816. 
Stephen  IV,  816-817. 
S.  Paschal  I,  817-824. 
Eugenius  II,  824-827. 
Valentinus,  827. 
-Gregory  IV,  827-844. 
Sergius  II,  844-847. 
S.  Leo  IV,  847-855. 
Benedict  III,  855-858. 
S.  Nicholas  I,  858-867. 
Hadrian  II,  867-872. 
John  VIII,  872-882. 
Marinus  I,  882-884. 
Hadrian  III,  884-885. 
Stephen  VI,  885-891. 
Formosus,  891-896. 
Boniface  VI,  896. 
Stephen  VI,  896-897. 
Romanus,  897. 
Theodore  II,  897. 
John  IX,  898-900. 


Benedict  IV,  900-903. 
Leo  V,  903. 
Christopher,  903-904. 
Sergius  III,  904-911. 
Anastasius  III,  911-913. 
Lando,  913-914. 
John  X,  914-928. 
Leo  VI,  928-929. 
Stephen  VII,  929-931. 
John  XI,  931-936. 
Leo  VIII,  936-939. 
Stephen  VIII,  939-942. 
Marinus  II,  942-946. 
Agapitus  II,  946-955. 
John  XII,  955-964. 
Leo  VIII,  963-965. 
Benedict  V,  964. 
John  XIII,  965-972. 
Benedict  VI,  972-974. 
Benedict  VII,  974-983. 
John  XIV,  983-984. 


THE  GERMAN  KINGDOM 


Boniface  VII  (974),  984-985. 
John  XV,  985-996. 
Gregory  V,  996-999. 
Silvester  II,  999-1003. 
John  XVII,  1003. 
John  XVIII,  1003-1009. 
Sergius  IV,  1009-1012. 
Benedict  VIII,  1012-1024. 
John  XIX,  1024-1033. 
Benedict  IX,  1033-1048. 
Gregory  VI,  1045-1046. 
Clement  II,  1046-1047. 
Damasus,  1048. 


S.  Leo  IX,  1048-1054. 
Victor  II,  1054-1057. 
Stephen  X,  1057-1058. 
Benedict  X,  1058-1060. 
Nicholas  II,  1059-1061. 
Alexander  II,  1061-1073. 

.Gregory  VII,  1073-1085. 
Victor  III,  1086-1087. 
Urban  II,  1088-1099. 
Paschal  II,  1099-1118. 
Gelasius  II,  1118-1119. 
Calixtus  II,  1119-1124. 


63 


CHAPTER    VII 
The  Kingdom  of  France  (to  1108) 

SUMMARY. — The  early  kings  of  France"  were  weak,  and  were  unable 
to  repel  the  invaders.  The  last  Carolingians  had  no  effective  authority, 
and  the  kingship  was  rendered  still  more  impotent  by  the  long  contest 
between  the  Carolingians  and  Capetians.  The  Northmen  had  to  be 
bribed  by  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  and  the  Flemish  cities  became  almost 
independent.  The  early  Capetians  were  enabled  by  a  number  of  favor- 
able circumstances  to  retain  their  power,  but  made  little  actual  advance 
before  1108. 

THE  kingdom  guaranteed  to  Charles  the  Bald,  son  of 
Lewis  the  Pious,  by  the  treaty  of  Verdun  corresponded 
Kin  dom  of  roughly  to  modern  France,  although  it  was  nar- 
Charies  the  rower  from  east  to  west  and  somewhat  longer 
Bald,  843-877,  from  north  to  south.  Bufc  Only  a  small  part  of 

the  country  was  actually  under  Charles's  power.  Brittany 
refused  to  recognize  him,  and  when  he  attempted  to  con- 
quer it  he  met  with  repeated  defeats.  Finally  he  was  forced 
to  recognize  its  independence,  and  his  son,  in  856,  married 
the  daughter  of  the  king  of  Brittany.  In  the  south,  Septi- 
mania  and  Aquitaine  were  nearly  as  independent ;  even  in 
the  north  he  had  constant  trouble  in  maintaining  his  power. 
Moreover,  the  country  suffered  greatly  from  invasions,  for 
the  Northmen  ravaged  his  territory,  burning  the  towns  and 
monasteries,  and  laying  waste  the  fields. 

In  spite  °f  the  difficulties  in  his  kingdom, 
Charles  cherished  ambitious  plans  of  conquer- 
ing Lorraine  and  Italy,  and  sought  to  obtain  the  imperial 
crown ;  consequently  he  was  forced  to  make  continual  con- 
64 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  FRANCE  65 

cessions  to  his  nobles,  whose  aid  he  needed.  He  granted  as 
fiefs  almost  all  the  lands  in  the  royal  domain,1  and  in  favor 
of  the  nobles  he  issued  the  capitulary  of  Mersen.2 

The  bishops  and  abbots,  too,  were  striving  constantly  to 
increase  their  power  and  to  free  themselves  from  their  feu- 
dal duties,  so  that  Charles  was  compelled  to  make  large 
grants  to  the  Church  in  order  to  retain  their  support. 

The  result  of  these  repeated  grants  was  to  transfer  all 
the  actual  power  to  the  nobles  and  clergy.  Even  the  counts, 
who  were  theoretically  the  king's  representa- 
Weatnessof  tives,  had  succeeded  in  making  their  offices 
hereditary,  and  exercised  their  power  wholly 
for  their  own  advantage.  The  king  was  obliged  to  buy  or 
beg  the  services  of  his  vassals,  who  were  practically  inde- 
pendent of  him.  In  spite  of  the  imperial  title,  which  he 
held  in  his  last  years,  Charles  had  little  real  authority. 
As  king,  he  had  merely  a  vague  overlordship  in  his  king- 
dom ;  as  emperor,  he  had  neither  army  nor  income  to  main- 
tain his  pretensions.  He  could  not  even  protect  his  sub- 
jects from  the  turbulent  nobles  or  the  Northmen. 

His  successors  were  equally  weak.  His  son,  Louis  the 
Stammerer,  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  title  of 
king,  and  reigned  for  only  two  years.  Two 
grandsons  of  Charles  the  Bald  reigned  together 
for  a  few  years,  but  the  last  one  died  in  884, 
leaving  no  heir  but  a  younger  brother,  five  years  of  age,  who 
was  known  later  as  Charles  the  Simple.  Charles  the  Fat, 
the  son  of  Lewis  the  German,  was  then  the  only  other 
legitimate  descendant,  in  the  male  line,  of  Charles  the 
Great.  He  was  already  emperor  and  king  of  Germany  and 
Italy ;  now  he  received  the  vacant  throne  of  the  "West 
Frankish  kingdom,  which  will  be  referred  to  hereafter  as 
France-  But  he  was  so  weak  that  he  aroused  the  contempt 

1  The  royal  domain  was  the  land  under  the  immediate  control  of 
the  king,  from  which  he  obtained  most  of  his  income.         2  See  p.  38. 
6 


66  MEDIEVAL   HISTOKY 

of  all  his  subjects ;  finally,  when  he  bought  off  the  North- 
men, who  were  besieging  Paris,  by  giving  them  permission 
to  plunder  elsewhere  in  his  kingdom,  the  nobles  rebelled 
and  deposed  him  in  887. 

After  the  deposition  of  Charles  the  Fat,  as  there  was  still 
no  Carolingian  of  full  age,  "  the  people,  by  common  consent, 

chose  as  their  king,  Duke  Eudes,  an  energetic 
Eobertian  man,  who,  by  his  beauty,  by  his  stature,  by  his 

great  strength,  and  by  his  wisdom,  surpassed 
all  the  others.  He  ruled  ably,  and  was  indefatigable  in 
fighting  against  the  Northmen,  who  were  making  constant 
raids."  This  is  the  description  given  of  Eudes  by  a  con- 
temporary abbot,  and  the  last  sentence  points  out  the  most 
important  service  which  he  performed.  His  father,  Eobert 
the  Strong,  was  a  man  of  obscure  origin,1  who  had  secured 
power  by  defending  his  neighbors  from  the  Northmen ; 
Eudes  had  been  the  hero  of  the  defense  of  Paris  in  886, 
before  Charles  the  Fat  bought  off  the  invaders. 

The  history  of  the  kings  in  France  during  the  succeed- 
ing century  is  composed  mainly  of  the  struggles  between 
the  Carolingian  and  Eobertian  houses.  When  Eudes  died, 
Charles  the  Simple,  a  posthumous  son  of  Louis  the  Stam- 
merer, was  recognized  as  king.  He  had  little  power,  and 
the  kingdom  was  wrested  from  him  in  923  by  a  member  of 
the  Robertian  house.  In  936  his  son,  Louis  d'Outremer,2 
was  summoned  by  the  nobles  to  be  their  king  ;  but  he  and 
his  successors  were  very  weak.  His  great  rival  was  Hugh, 
uDuke  of  France,"  a  descendant  of  Eobert  the  Strong. 
Hugh  had  joined  in  the  summons  to  Louis,  but  soon  be- 
came hostile,  and  stripped  him  of  a  great  part  of  his  posses- 
sions. In  948  Louis  was  reduced  to  such  straits  that  he 

1  Possibly  a  Saxon.  In  later  times  it  was  believed  that  he  was  the 
son  of  a  Parisian  butcher. 

4  Louis  "  from  beyond  the  sea "  was  so  named  because  after  his 
father's  deposition  he  had  been  taken  by  his  mother  to  the  court  of  her 
brother,  king  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  FRANCE  67 

iad  to  appeal  for  aid  at  a  church  council  to  King  Otto  I 

>f  Germany.     "Hugh  recalled  me  from  the  foreign  land 

where  I  was  living  in  exile,  and,  with  the  con- 

S6nt  °f  ^'  ^  ma>&G  me  king»  ^ut  he  left  in  mv 

power  only  the  city  of  Laon.  .  .  .  Finally  he 
iroused  pirates  to  seize  me  by  treason.  ...  He  cast  me 
nto  a  dungeon  and  kept  me  there  for  a  year.  .  .  .  Laon 
vas  my  only  fortress,  the  only  asylum  which  I  had  for 
ny  wife  and  children ;  but  what  could  I  do  ?  I  preferred 
ny  life  to  a  castle ;  I  sacrificed  the  castle  for  my  liberty, 
^ow,  to-day,  despoiled  of  everything,  I  implore  the  aid  of 
ill.  If  the  duke  should  dare  to  contradict  me,  I  am  ready 
DO  fight  him  in  single  combat." 1  With  the  aid  of  Otto  he 
secured  Laon  again,  but  his  son  and  grandson  were  as  weak 
is  he  had  been. 

On  the  death  of  the  grandson  of  Louis,  in  987,  Hugh 

Capet,2  duke   of   France,   was   chosen    king.      From  the 

feeble  Carolingian  line  the  kingship  was  trans- 

98?h996P6t'       ferred  to  tne  holder  of  the  most  important  fief 

in  the  kingdom,  and  the  descendants  of  Hugh 

Capet  continued  on  the  throne  for  eight  hundred  years. 

But  before  following  the  fortunes  of  the  Capetians  certain 

events  of  the  tenth  century  must  be  described. 

The  most  important  was  the  creation  of  the  duchy  of 
Normandy.     In  911  Charles  the  Simple  granted  the  nucleus 
of  the  later  duchy  to  Eollo,  leader  of  the  North- 
men ;  at  the  same  time  lie  gave  Eollo  permis- 
sion to  plunder  Brittany.     He  did  thus  in  order 
to  protect  the  rest  of  the  kingdom  from  the  ravages  of  the 
Northmen,  and  in  this  he  was  successful.     Eollo  was  bap- 

1  From  the  history  of  Richer,  a  monk  who  lived  in  the  last  half  of 
the  tenth  century. 

2  So  called  from  the  cape  or  cope  which  he  wore  as  lay-abbot  of  a 
monastery.     Robertian  and  Capetian  are  both  used  to  designate  the 
descendants  of  Eudes.    Robertian  from  Robert  the  Strong,  Capetian 
from  Hugh  Capet. 


68  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

tized,  and  many  of  his  followers  also  became  Christians. 
In  order  to  reward  his  followers  he  divided  with  them  the 
land  which  he  had  received,  reserving  for  himself  the  lion's 
share.  Normandy,  as  his  land  was  called,  nourished  and  in- 
creased in  territory  under  his  rule ;  Northmen  and  inhabi- 


^tcper*}?*  W  M^JWmiecup&fc 
<J  x/       ~  J    J       /         is 


PART  OP  A  CHARTER  OF  HUGH  CAPET. 

tants  of  the  neighboring  districts  repeopled  the  land  which 
had  been  deserted.  "  He  forced  his  subjects  to  live  together 
in  peace ;  he  rebuilt  the  churches,  renewed  and  strengthened 
the  walls  of  the  cities  and  the  fortifications,"  *  so  that  under 
his  successors  the  duchy  prospered  greatly.  The  Northmen 
in  Normandy  kept  up  a  close  connection  with  the  north 
and  frequently  received  aid  thence.  This  increased1  their 
power,  but  gave  them  an  evil  name  in  the  rest  of  France, 
where  the  dukes  were  often  styled  "  chiefs  of  the  pirates." 
They  supported  the  Eobertian  or  Capetian  house  during 
all  its  strife  with  the  Carolingians.  Gradually  the  Npr- 
mans  gave  up  their  pagan  customs  and  became  jver^jdevout 
Christians :  but  for  centuries  they  retained  their  love  of 
wand erJTig  and  adventure. 

Another  important  event  of  this  period  was  the  rise  of 
the  Flemish  cities.  The  constant  attacks  of  the  North- 
men, especially  of  those  who  had  settled  on  the  islands 

1  William  of  Jumieges,  a  Norman  writer  of  the  first  half  of  the 
eleventh  century. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  FRANCE  69 

near  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  forced  the  inhabitants  to 

seek  refuge  in  the  remains  of  the  old  Roman  fortifications. 

These  were  rebuilt,  strengthened,  and  enlarged, 

Rise  of  the         an(j  on  their  sites  the  cities  of  Flanders  grew 
Flemish  cities  • 

up.     The  inhabitants,  by  living  together,  were 

forced  into  a  community  of  interests,  and  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  local  nobles  became  redoubtable  foes.  In  their 
dangers  and  quarrels  with  one  another  they  sought  aid  from 
bhe  kings  of  France  and  Germany  and  from  the  leading 
counts  and  dukes,  but  were  to  a  great  extent  independent. 
The  poverty  of  the  Carolingians  has  been  referred  to 
already ;  the  last  kings  of  this  house  had  only  Laon  and  a 
few  small  towns  under  their  actual  power.  The 
^apetian  house  had  been  very  wealthy,  but  in 
their  long  struggle  with  the  Carolingians  the 
dukes  had  been  obliged  to  buy  aid  and  soldiers  by  granting 
one  fief  after  another.  The  holders  of  these  fiefs  became 
more  and  more  independent,  so  that  when  Hugh  Capet  be- 
came king  he  had  under  his  immediate  control  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  lands  which  had  formed  the  duchy  of  France 
fifty  years  before.  The  real  heirs  of  the  royal  authority 
were  the  feudal  nobles  who  were  exercising  almost  all  of 
the  royal  prerogatives  on  their  fiefs.  Hugh  Capet  was 
elected  June  1,  987,  and  shortly  afterward  crowned  "  king 
of  the  Gauls,  of  the  Britons,  of  the  Danes  [Normans],  of 
the  Aquitanians,  of  the  Goths,1  of  the  Spaniards,  and  of 
the  Gascons."  In  spite  of  this  elaborate  title,  his  real 
power  was  not  great.  The  diminished  territories  of  his 
family  he  was  compelled  to  diminish  still  more  in  order  to 
secure  aid  to  maintain  his  position.  His  son  and  grandson 
were  even  less  successful,  and  could  not  prevent  their  vas- 
sals from  erecting  hostile  fortresses  almost  on  the  royal 
domain.  In  order  to  obtain  provisions  for  the  royal  court, 
it  had  to  be  moved  from  one  estate  to  another,  and,  in  ad- 

1  Inhabitants  of  Gothia. 


70  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

dition,  the  king  had  to  exercise  his  prerogative  as  a  feudal 
lord  to  demand  lodgings  and  provisions  from  his  vassals. 

In   fact,  the  men  of  that  day  looked  upon  the  king 

mainly  as  a  feudal  overlord  ;  as  has  been  said,  the  kingship 

had  been  annexed  to  the  most  important  fief. 


Position  of  the     The  king  j^  a  ^g^  to  demand  only  feudal 

duties  from  his  subjects  ;  and  these  the  vassals 
would  fulfil  or  not,  according  to  their  inclination  and 
strength.  But  the  Capetians  themselves  never  lost  wholly 
from  their  view  the  old  kingship  with  its  absolute  power. 
The  history  of  the  Capetian  house  in  the  first  three  centu- 
ries is  a  long  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  kings  to  use  their 
feudal  rights  so  as  to  transform  their  position  into  an  abso- 
lute monarchy.  Naturally,  all  of  them  did  not  have  this 
clearly  in  mind,  and  progress  was  very  slow  ;  but  viewing 
their  history  as  a  whole,  it  is  possible  to  see  the  progress 
which  they  made. 

They  had  several  things  in  their  favor.  l  girst  of  all. 
they  had  usually  the  support  of  the  Church^which  believed 

in  centralized  government,  longed  for  peace, 
cirJumsfance  :  an(^  1>ealized  the  need  of  repressing  feudal  an- 
support  from  archy.  When  the  kings  incurred  the  hostility 

and  opposition  of  the  Church  it  was  because 
of  their  transgression  of  the  laws  of  the  Church,  especially 
with  regard  to  marriage. 

Secondly,  there  wore  several  long  reigns  ;  for  a  period 
of  over  three  hundred  years  each  king  had  a  son  to  succeed 

him  ;  and  in  all  but  two  instances  the  son  was 
ong  reigns,  aTull-grown  man  at  the  time  of  his  father's 
death,  so  that  the  evils  of  a  minority  were  avoided.  In 
order  to  render  the  succession  certain  all  the  early  Cape- 
tians had  their  sons  crowned  during  their  own  lifetime. 
Thus  Hugh  associated  his  son  Eobert  with  him  in  the  king- 
ship the  very  year  that  he  himself  received  the  crown.  In 
this  way  the  kingship  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as 
hereditary  and  not  elective,  as  in  the  earlier  days. 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  FKANCE 


The  kings  avoided  placing  authority  in  the  hands  of  the 

nobles,  and  chose  as  their  agents  men  of  humble  birth,  who 

owed  everything  to  them.     These  were  selected 

Officials  of  generally  from  the  members  of  the  clergy,  who 
humble  birthi  ° 

alone  were  educated  and,  because  of  their  celi- 
bacy, could  found  no  families  which  might  become  dan- 
gerously powerful. 

Lastly,  the  prestige  of  the  old  idea  of  kingship  aided 
them.  They  associated  as  equals  with  the  kings  of  Ger- 
many, and  outside  of  their  immediate  domains 
had  greater  respect,  although  no  more  real 
power,  than  among  their  immediate  yassals. 
The  first  four  Capetians  accomplished  little.  Hugh 
succeeded  in  holding  his  kingdom  against  the  Carolingian 
What  the  earl  claimant-  R°.Dert  II  conquered  Burgundy ;  but 
Capetians  this  valuable  addition  to  the  royal  territory 
accomplished,  was  soon  jost)  for  ^he  next  king,  Henry  I, 

granted  it  to  his  brother  in  order  to  secure  his  own  posi- 
tion as  king.  Under  Henry  I  the  power  of  the  king  de- 
clined rapidly,  yet  in  spite 
of  his  weakness  Henry  at- 
tempted to  claim  Lorraine 
from  Henry  III  of  Germany. 
The  French  kings  never 
ceased  to  desire  this  ter- 
ritory and  to  assert  their 
claims  to  it.  Hitherto  the 
old  friendship  and  alliance 
between  the  Capetians  and 
the  dukes  of  Normandy  had 
been  continuous ;  but  now 
Henry  was  alarmed  at  the  SEAL  OF  HENRY  I. 

position  which  the  Norman 

duke  had  attained,  and  attempted  to  conquer  him.  But 
Duke  William,  later  the  conqueror  of  England  (10.GG),  was 
an  abler  general  than  Henry,  and  inflicted  two  disastrous 


72  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

defeats  upon  the  latter.  Philip  I1  succeeded  in  adding 
some  fiefs  to  the  royal  domain.  He  endeavored  also  to 
weaken  the  duke  of  Normandy,  who  had  become  king  of 
England  also,  by  stirring  up  strife  in  his  family  and  sup- 
porting rebellions  against  his  power.  This  policy,  which 
he  initiated,  became  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Capetians 
in  their  relations  with  the  dukes  of  Normandy. 

No  one  of  these  kings  was  feeble  in  character;  their 
weakness  was  due  mainly  to  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  placed.  They  had  no  resources  ex- 
Why  they  were  cep£  such  as  they  could  draw  from  their  com- 
paratively small  estates,  or  could  obtain  from 
the  good-will  of  the  barons.  From  their  farms  they  got 
grain ;  from  their  vineyards,  wine  ;  from  their  forests,  game, 
which  they  themselves  killed  ;  from  their  immediate  vassals 
and  from  the  churches  and  monasteries  on  their  domain, 
they  exacted  "  aids  "  in  money ;  these  were  practically  their 
only  sources  of  income.  But  they  retained  their  kingship 
and  laid  the  foundation  for  the  development  in  the  twelfth 
century.  In  addition,  during  the  last  quarter  of  Philip's 
long  reign,  the  crusade  2  took  out  of  France  many  of  the 
turbulent  nobles  and  dangerous  characters,  thus  making  it 
easier  for  the  king  to  rule. 

REFERENCES 

France  under  Last  Carolingians  and  Early  Capetians :  Tout,  chap, 
iv.  The  Normans  in  France :  Johnson,  Normans,  chaps,  iii,  iv,  v, 
vii,  viii,  and  xi.  The  First  Four  Capetian  Kings :  Masson,  Medieval 
France  (New  York,  1893),  chap,  i;  Emerton,  Europe,  pp.  398-420; 
Adams,  French  Nation  (New  York,  1897);  Hassall,  French  People 
(New  York,  1901),  chap.  iv. 

1  This  name  was  introduced  into  the  Capetian  house  through  the 
marriage  of  Henry  I  with  a  Russian  princess  whose  family  claimed 
descent  from  Philip  of  Macedon. 

2  See  Chap.  XI. 


dUi^ 


op 


Charles  the  Bald,  843-881. 

Charles  the  Fat,  881-887. 

Eudes,  888-898. 

Charles  the  Simple,  898-923. 

Robert  I,  923. 

Rudolf  of  Burgundy,  923-936. 

Louis  IV,  d'Outremer,  936-954. 


OP  PRANCE 


843-1108 

Lothair,  954-986. 

Louis  V,  le  Faineant,  986-987. 

Hugh  Capet,  987-996. 

Robert  II,  the  Pious,  996-1031. 

Henry  I,  1031-1060. 

Philip  1, 1060-1108. 


CHAPTER    VIII 
England  (to  1135) 

SUMMARY. — The  history  of  England  differs  from  the  history  of  other 
countries  conquered  by  Germans.  Almost  all  traces  of  Roman  civiliza- 
tion disappeared.  For  four  centuries  a  varying  number  of  petty  king- 
doms contended  for  the  supremacy.  The  Danish  invasions  caused  them 
to  become  united  for  a  time  in  self-defense.  But  the  real  unity  was 
brought  about  by  the  Norman  conquest,  which  brought  England  into 
close  connection  with  the  Continent  and  had  other  important  conse- 
quences. 

THE  history  of  England  during  the  early  centuries  of 
the  middle  ages  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  other  coun- 
History  of  Eng-  tries  into  which  the  Germans  migrated.  Else- 
land  different  where,  as  indicated  in  the  introductory  chapter, 
other  German  the  Germans  adopted  many  of  the  customs  of 
conquests,  the  conquered  peoples.  In  all  of  the  other 
countries  the  invaders  were  far  less  numerous  than  the 
natives  among  whom  they  settled  ;  consequently  many  Eo- 
man  institutions  survived  and  the  Latin  language  became 
the  basis  of  tlic  modern  speech.  In  England,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  Anglo-Saxons  introduced  their  own  institutions 
and  their  own  language ;  only  a  few  English  words  can  be 
traced  to  the  Celtic,  the  language  of  the  original  inhabit- 
ants. It  does  not  seem  probable  that  the  invaders  exter- 
minated all  of  the  conquered  peoples,  but  they  subjugated 
them  so  completely  that  the  latter  had  but  little  influence 
upon  the  conquerors. 

From  the  fifth  to  the  eighth  centuries  the  Anglo-Saxons 
in  Britain  formed  petty  kingdoms  of  small  extent.  These 
74 


ENGLAND 


T5 


were  constantly  at  strife  with  one  another,  and  the  history 
of  the  period,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  is  almost  entirely  a 
record  of  the  wars  waged  by  the  rival  kings. 
In  tlie  seventn  century  there  were  seven  or 
eight  separate  kingdoms.  The  only  bond  of 
union  was  to  be  found  in  the  Christian  Church,  which  held 
national  councils  attended  by  the  leading  men  from  all  the 
different  kingdoms. 

The  king  of  Northumbria  seems  to  have  exercised  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  power  over  the  other  kings  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventh  century.  In  the  eighth,  the  king- 
dom  of  Mercia>  especially  under  Offa  (755-794), 
was  supreme.  At  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
the  leadership  passed  to  Wessex,  whose  king,  Egbert  (802- 
837),  favored  by  the  alliance  of  ClKflrtes  Utae  Great,  conquered 
the  greater  part  of  England  and  part  of  Wales.  During  his 
lifetime  he  succeeded  in  driving  off  the  Danes  when  they 
made  attacks  upon  the  coast, 
but  after  his  death  the  suprem- 
acy of  Wessex  was  imperiled 
by  their  invasions. 

In  850,  for  the  first  time, 
the  Danes  remained  over  win- 
ter in  England  on 
the  Isle  of  Thanet. 
In  867  all  of  the 
vikings  who  had  been  plunder- 
ing the  western  coast  of  Eu- 
rope joined  together  for  an 
attack  upon  the  English,  who 

made  a  brave  resistance.  "  This  year  [871]  nine  general  bat- 
tles were  fought  against  the  army1  in  the  kingdom  south  of 
the  Thames,  besides  which,  Alfred,  the  king's  brother,  and 

1  The  Danes.  This  is  the  term  used  for  them  after  867  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  from  which  this  and  the  following  quotations 
are  taken. 


Danes  attack 
England, 


FIBULA  FOUND  IN  ABINGDON. 


76  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

single  ealdormen,  and  king's  thanes,1  oftentimes  made  in- 
cursions on  them,  which  were  not  counted ;  and  within  the 
year  nine  earls  and  one  king  were  slain." 

The  king  who  was  slain  was  Ethelred,  who:;i  his  brother 
Alfred  succeeded.  For  a  time  the  Danes  were  successful 
...  ,  everywhere,  subduing  Mercia  and  Northum- 

871-901,  bria,  and  compelling  Alfred  to  retreat  "  to  the 
and  the  Danes,  W00(js  and  to  the  fastnesses  of  the  moors." 
From  his  fortress  which  he  built  at  Athelney  he  made  re- 
peated attacks  upon  the  Danes.  "  Finally,  being  joined  by 
the  men  of  three  shires,  he  fought  against  all  the  army  and 
put  it  to  flight."  After  a  siege  of  two  weeks  the  Danes  were 
compelled  to  surrender  their  fortress,  to  take  oath  to  leave 
Alfred's  kingdom,  and  to  promise  to  be  baptized.  This  was 
the  celebrated  peace  of  Wedmore,2  by  which  the  land  was 
divided  between  Alfred  and  the  Danes.  Alfred  retained 
only  Wessex,  Sussex,  Kent,  and  half  of  Mercia ;  the  rest  of 
England  was  surrendered  to  the  Danes  and  became  known 
as  Danelaw,  or  land  under  the  law  of  the  Danes.  In  893  he 
had  to  confront  a  fresh  invasion  of  the  Danes,  but  after  about 
three  years  of  continuous  fighting  he  was  again  victorious. 

In  order  to  be  ready  to  repel  a  Danish  invasion  at  any 
time,  Alfred  ordered  that  in  each  district  one-half  of  the 
men  should  always  be  ready  to  march  at  a  mo- 
Mfred'sre-  ment's  notice,  while  the  other  half  should  cul- 
tivate the  soil.  He  built  a  navy  to  attack  the 
Danes  upon  the  water,  and  was  the  first  English  king  to 
defeat  them  on  their  own  element.  Besides  providing  for 
the  defense  of  his  land,  he  strove  earnestly  to  improve  its 
government.  He  gathered  together  and  published  a  code 
of  laws  which  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  such  old  laws 
and  customs  as  seemed  to  him  suitable,  with  a  very  few 
additions  of  his  own. 

1  Nobles  who  held  land  directly  from  the  king.    After  the  Norman 
conquest,  baron  was  used  instead  of  thane. 
s  Also  known  as  the  treaty  of  Chippenham. 


MAP  OF 

ENGLAND, 

878. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


-^" 


2°  longitude  West  0°          Longitude  East 


78  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

Before  all  else  Alfred  was  a  teacher  and  was  anxious  to 
educate  his  subjects.  He  had  been  a  lover  of  books  from 
his  youth  up  and  realized  the  importance  of 
learning.  But  the  Danes  had  destroyed  many 
of  the  books  in  the  monasteries  and  most  of  the 
schools  had  been  closed  for  years,  so  that  there  were  only  a 
very  few  men  in  the  kingdom  who  could  read  or  write.  Al- 
fred gathered  together  at  his  court  learned  men  from  his 
own  kingdom  and  other  lands  and  established  schools  for 
his  subjects.  Moreover,  for  the  education  of  his  people  he 
translated  into  the  Anglo-Saxon  language  the  three  Latin 
works  which  he  considered  most  valuable.1  He  set  scholars 
at  work  to  translate  other  books,  especially  the  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History  of  Bede,  which  recounted  the  history  of  Chris- 
tian Britain.  He  also  caused  the  early  portions  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  to  be  composed  in  the  mother  tongue, 
so  that  his  subjects  might  know  the  history  of- their  owij 
race  from  the  time  when  it  first  invaded  England. 

The  character  of  Alfred  the  Great  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion upon  his  people.  A  thousand  years  after  his  death 
delegates  from  all  the  English-speaking  conn- 
tries  gathered  together  at  Winchester,  his  old 
capital,  to  do  honor  to  his  memory.  About  his 
name  have  clustered  many  fables  which  show  how  the  peo- 
ple of  later  days  were  inclined  to  attribute  all  that  was 
best  and  noblest  to  him.  Possibly  the  finest  tribute  to 
his  character  is  the  name  justly  bestowed  upon  him  of 
"Alfred  the  Truth-teller." 

Effect  of  the  Under  his  successors,  Edward  the  Uncon- 

Danishinva-       quered,  Athelstan  the  Glorious,  Edmund  the 
Bions,  Doer-of-great-deeds,  and  Edred,  the  whole  of 

England  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  king  of  Wessex.    The 
Danish  invasions  had  really  aided  in  making  a  united  Eng- 

1  The  Consolations  of  Ph&owphy,  by  Boethius;  the  Universal  His- 
tory of  Orosius,  and  the  Pastoral  Care  of  Gregory  the  Great. 


ENGLAND  79 

land.  Before  their  attacks  began  the  inhabitants  of  the 
petty  kingdoms  into  which  the  country  was  divided  had  been 
separated  from  one  another  by  feelings  of  antagonism  and 
jealousy.  After  the  Danes  had  made  themselves  master  of 
the  rest  of  England,  the  king  of  Wessex  became  the  cham- 
pion of  Englishmen  and  Christians  against  the  invaders  and 
pagans.  Consequently,  after  each  conquest  of  territory,  he 
was  accepted  willingly  as  king  by  the  English  inhabitants. 
He  was  the  national  leader,  "  King  of  the  English." 

Athelstan's  power  was  so  great  that  alliance  with  him 
was  sought  by  the  chief  rulers  on  the  continent.     His  three 

sisters  married  Charles  the  Simple  of  Erance, 
AtheTsten,  Otto  I  of  Germany,  and  Hugh  the  Great.  His 

greatest  achievement  was  his  victory  at_Brju 
nanburh,  in  937,  over  the  king  of  the  Scots  and  the  Danish 
kings  of  the  north.  A  war-song  was  composed  in  honor  of 
this  victory  and  is  preserved  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 
Parts  of  it  are  as  follows  :  1 

The  West  Saxons  forth,  No  slaughter  has  been  greater 

the  live-long  day,  in  this  island 

in  martial  bands,  ever  yet 

follow'd  the  footsteps  of  folk  laid  low, 

of  the  hostile  nations.  before  this, 

They  hewed  the  fugitives  by  the  swords'  edges, 

from  behind  amain  from  what  books  tell  us, 

with  falchions  mill-sharp.  old  chroniclers, 

The  Mercians  refused  not,  since  hither  from  the  east 

the  hard  hand-play  Angles  and  Saxons 

to  any  of  the  warriors,  came  to  the  land, 

who  with  Olaf,  o'er  the  broad  seas 

o'er  the  waves  mingling,  Britain  sought, 

in  the  ship's  bosom,  proud  war-smiths, 

the  land  had  sought  the  Welsh  o'ercame, 

death-doomed  in  fight.  men  for  glory  eager, 

the  country  gained. 

1  It  is  fortunate  that  this  ballad  of  our  forefathers  has  been  pre- 
served.   Its  form  illustrates  the  character  of  the  early  English  poetry. 


80  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

The  period  from  955  to  1016,  although  broken  by  the 
peaceful  rule  of  Edgar  (959-975),  was  marked  by  internal 
wars  which  made  the  nation  weak.  This  was 
Danish  inva-  shown  clearly  when  the  Danes  made  new  inva- 
sions in  988  and  the  following  years.  The  peo- 
ple in  different  localities  made  a  valiant  defense,  but  "  shire 
would  not  help  shire,"  and  Ethelred  used  gold,  not  steel, 
to  repel  the  invaders.  In  991  and  the  following  years  the 
Danegeld  was  levied  to  furnish  money  to  buy  off  the  Danes, 
and  the  tribute  paid  to  them  led  to  new  invasions.  In  1002 
the  English  fear  and  hatred  of  the  Danes  became  so  in- 
tense that  Ethelred  ordered  the  massacre  of  St.  Brice's  day, 
when  many  of  the  Danes  in  England  were  murdered.  This 
aroused  Swegen,  king  of  Denmark,  to  take  vengeance,  and 
he  devastated  the  kingdom.  Ethelred  was  compelled  to 
flee  to  Normandy,  and  Swegen  was  recognized  as  king  by 
right  of  conquest.  When  he  died,  in  the  following  year, 
Ethelred  returned,  and  was  able  to  rule  until  1016. 

Ethelred's  second  marriage,  in  1002,  had  important  con- 
sequences for  England.  His  bride  was  Emma,  daughter  of 

the  duke  of  Normandy,  in  whose  train  Nor- 
Connection  of  -y  . 

England  with      mans  came  to   England  and  received  offices. 

Normandy,  Ethelred,  when  driven  out,  took  refuge  at  the 
duke's  court ;  later  Emma  again  fled  thither,  taking  her 
sons  with  her,  of  whom  one  was  later  Edward  the  Confessor. 
From  the  time  of  Ethelred's  marriage  Englishmen  and 
Normans  became  closely  associated. 

On  the  death  of  Swegen,  his  son,  Canute,  had  not  been 

strong  enough  to  obtain  the  English  kingdom,  which  had 

been  restored  to  Ethelred.     On  the  death  of 

the  latter> there  was  a  d°uble  election ;  Canute 
was  chosen  by  one  party,  and  Edmund,  son  of 
Ethelred,  by  the  other.  The  death  of  Edmund  gave  the 
whole  kingdom  to  Canute.  His  reign  was  inaugurated  by 
the  killing  of  all  the  leaders  whom  he  thought  dangerous. 
But  after  he  felt  that  his  rule  was  firmly  established  he  ruled 


ENGLAND  81 

with  great  justice  and  ability.  He  made  very  few  changes 
in  the  institutions  of  England,  except  by  creating  the  great 
earls.  Under  the  preceding  kings  it  was  customary  for 
each  shire  to  have  as  its  chief  an  ealdorman ;  some  of  these 
became  very  powerful,  and  extended  their  rule  over  two  or 
more  shires.  Canute  made  four  great  divisions  of  his  king- 
dom— Wessex,  East  Anglia,  Mercia,  and  Northumberland — 
and  placed  at  the  head  of  each  an  official  whose  title  was 
no  longer  ealdorman  but  earl. 

The  other  parts  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  administrative  sys- 
tem were  retained  by  Canute ;  the  powers  of  the  government 
were,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  hands  of  local  groups.  At 
the  base  of  the  system  were  the  hundreds,  which  were  com- 
posed of  an  indefinite  number  of  townships,  of  which  each 
one  was  held  responsible  for  its  own  members.  The  assem- 
bly of  the  hundred  decided  local  disputes,  punished  crimes, 
and  recorded  agreements.  The  hundreds  were  grouped  to- 
gether into  shires,  which  also  had  their  assemblies,  presided 
over  by  the  shire  reeve  or  sheriff.  The  whole  kingdom  was 
Local  overn  divided  into  shires,  and,  except  under  a  very 
ments  and  strong  king,  the  maintenance  of  order  depended 
witenagemot,  Up0n  the  local  authorities.  Moreover,  the  king 
was  controlled  to  a  great  extent  by  the  witenagemot,  or  as- 
sembly of  the  great  men  of  the  whole  kingdom,  which  had 
the  right  to  elect  the  king.  All  laws  had  to  receive  the 
sanction  of  its  members,  who  formed  the  advisory  council 
of  the  king,  and  all  important  actions  were  submitted  to 
them  for  approval.  In  the  witenagemot  the  bishops  and 
nobles  sat  together. 

On  the  death  of  Canute,  in  1035,  his  two  sons  ruled  in 
succession  ;  but  after  their  death  the  witenagemot,  in  1042, 
Edward  the  elected  Edward  the  Confessor,  son  of  Ethelred 
Confessor  and  and  the  Norman  Emma.  He  had  been  educated 
Godwin,  |n  Normandy,  and  brought  with  him  to  Eng- 

land many  Normans,  who  were  given  important  offices  and 
had  great  influence.  Godwin,  whom  Canute  had  made  earl 


82  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

of  Wessex,  had  been  influential  in  having  Edward  elected ; 
and  his  daughter  was  married  to  the  king.  But  when  the 
king  brought  in  his  Norman  favorites  Godwin  opposed 
them  and  became  the  leader  of  the  anti-Norman  party. 
He  and  his  family  were  exiled,  but  soon  returned,  supported 
by  the  whole  English  nation,  and  became  all-powerful  in  the 
kingdom.  On  the  death  of  Godwin,  his  son  Harold  suc- 
ceeded him;  and  on  the  death  of  Edward,  Harold  was 
elected  king  by  the  witenagemot. 

Immediately,  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  asserted  a 

claim  to  the  throne.     The  claim  was  based  upon  a  pretended 

bequest  by  Edward,  with  whom  William  had 

William  claims    ^een  jn  intimate  association.     In  addition,  the 

the  kingdonii 

duke  claimed  that  Harold  had  broken  an  oath, 
as,  according  to  William's  statement,  Harold  had  taken  an 
oath  not  to  oppose  his  election.  Neither  Edward  nor  Harold 
could  give  the  kingdom  away ;  but  these  claims  were  put 
forward  to  justify  William's  invasion. 

Gathering  together  a  mixed  host,  he  landed  in  England 
in  1066,  and  at  Hastings,  or  Senlac,  won  a  decisive  victory, 

and  in  the  battle  Harold  was  slain.  London 
Norman  soon  opened  its  gates  to  William,  and  he  was 

crowned  on  Christmas  day.  The  conquest  of 
the  whole  land  was  accomplished  after  four  years  of  fight- 
ing, and  William  was  recognized  as  the  legitimate  king. 
By  this  conquest  all  England  had  come  under  his  power. 
William  held  that  all  who  had  taken  up  arms  against  him 
to  aid  the  perjured  Harold  had  forfeited  their  lands  to 
the  crown.  He  gave  part  of  their  lands  to  his  Norman 
followers ;  part  he  allowed  the  English  holders  to  redeem  ; 
but  in  every  case  the  transaction  was  made  with  a  strict 
observance  of  legal  forms.  In  this  manner  all  land  came 
to  be  held  from  the  king,  and  following  the  custom  in 
Normandy,  he  required  every  vassal  to  take  an  oath  of 
allegiance  directly  to  him,  and  not  to  any  intermediate 
lord.  In  this  way  William  avoided  the  dangerous  condi- 


ENGLAND  83 

tions  in  France,  where  a  vassal  owed'  allegiance  only  to 
his  lord  and  not  to  the  king.  In  other  respects  also  he 
introduced  the  forms  of  feudalism  as  they  existed  in  Nor- 
mandy. Following  the  strict  letter  of  the  law,  as  he  inter- 
preted it,  he  supplanted  gradually  the  English  earls,  bishops, 
and  abbots,  and  introduced  Normans  in  their  place. 

The  results  of  his  policy  can  be  seen  in  the  Domesday 
Boole,  which  contains  the  records  of  a  general  survey  made 
in  1086.  The  pretext  for  this  survey  was  the 
Domesday  necessity  of  a  census  in  order  that  taxation 
might  be  more  effective.  In  the  case  of  each 
entry  in  Domesday  there  is  a  statement  of  the  present  pos- 
sessor of  the  land,  of  the  possessor  in  the  days  of  King 
Edward,  and  of  the  value  of  the  land  at  those  two  dates. 
In  addition,  there  is  a  vast  mass  of  details  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  freemen  and  serfs,  and  of  their  possessions.  It  is 
an  unique  record  of  medieval  civilization,  although  many 
subjects  are  ignored  or  taken  for  granted,  so  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult at  the  present  day  to  understand  its  full  meaning. 
It  shows  very  clearly  that  William  was  carrying  out  his 
policy  with  a  strict  attention  to  the  law  as  he  interpreted 
it.  The  record  seems  to  have  been  made  impartially,  for 
Normans,  and  even  the  immediate  family  of  the  king,  are 
recorded  as  withholding  property  unjustly  from  Saxons,  to 
whom  it  actually  belonged. 

The  conquest  had  most  important  results  for  England, 
and  changes  worthy  of  note  took  place  under  William  and 
Results  of  the  ^s  successors.  First  of  all,  the  conquest  made 
conquest ;  power  the  central  government  much  .stronger.  All 
of  the  king,  lands~wereTieI5"lirom^Ee  king^  and  all  free- 
men were  obliged  to  serve  in  the  king's  army.  He  collected 
general  taxes,  and  sent  judges  throughout  the  land  to  hold 
courts  and  try  cases.  The  sheriff  in  each  shire  was  obliged 
to  report  to  the  king  twice  each  year,  so  that  the  latter's 
authority  was  felt  in  every  part  of  the  land  and  the  local 
rulers  lost  much  of  their  importance. 


84  MEDIEVAL  HISTOBY 

In  the  second  place,  the  con^pie^tJmiiight-EDgland  into 
close  association  with  the  Continent,  as  William  and  his 
successors  were  auKes  of  Normandy  as  well  as 


kinSs  of  England,  consequently  the  two  coun- 
tries  were    brought    into   intimate    relations. 
Some  of  his  followers  held  estates  on  both  sides  of  the 
English  Channel,  which  made  it  necessary  for  them  and 
their  vassals  to  make  frequent  journeys  between  England 
and  Normandy.   Moreover,  William  had  sought  the  sanction 
of  the  Pope  for  his  invasion  ;  and  after  he  had  conquered 
the  country,  he  _  brought  t.hft  English   Church  more  fully 
v     under  the  authority  of  the  Pope,  so  that  Eoman  legates 
V  journeyed  to  England  and  English  bishops  sought  Rome. 

In  the  third    place,  thft  P,OT]qyift4  hrn^glif.  in  -HPW  nla^a 

.      of  inhabitants.     Norman  merchants  and  artisans,  as  well 
as  Norman  lords,  settled  in  England,  intro- 
ducing    new   customs    and   a  new  language. 
Stately  Norman  churches  were  built  ;  Norman 
castles  guarded  the  land;   the  Norman-French  language 
was  spoken  by  the  ruling  classes,  and  for  a  time  English 
was  spoken  only  by  the  conquered  people.     Only  gradually 
did  the  latter  regain  the  supremacy  ;  and  then  it  had  lost 
many  of  its  ancient  forms,  and  was  enriched  by  new  words 
borrowed  from  the  Norman-French.      The  language,  the 
people,  the  country  as  a  whole,  profited  greatly  by  the 
changes  introduced  by  the  Norman  conquest. 

William  Rufus,  who  succeeded  William  the  Conqueror, 
in  1087,  was  noted  chiefly  for  his  vices  and  his  tyrannical 
rule.     But  the  next  king,  Henry  I,  1100-1135, 
redressed  the  evil  customs  and  won  the  name 
of  "  the  lion  of  justice."     He  granted  a  charter 
of  liberties,  restored  some  of  the  powers  to  the  local  author- 
ities, and  married  an  English  wife  ;  by  these  acts  he  con- 
ciliated the  support  of  his  English  subjects,  so  that  by  their 
aid  he  was  able  to  conquer  Normandy,  which  had  been  given 
to  his  brother. 


ENGLAND 


85 


REFERENCES 

Conversion  of  the  English :  Cutts,  Parish  Priests  and  their  People 
(London,  1898),  chap.  ii.  Vikings  in  England:  Green,  Conquest, 
chap.  ii.  Alfred :  Green,  Conquest,  chap,  iv  ;  Freeman,  Norman 
Conquest  (New  York,  1873),  vol.  i,  pp.  31-37.  The  Norman  Con- 
quest: Freeman,  William  (London,  1894),  chaps,  v-ix.  Growth  of 
the  Nation :  Cheyney,  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England  (New 
York,  1901),  pp.  1-19. 


KINGS  OF  THE  FAMILY  OF  EGBERT 


EGBERT, 

802-839. 

ETHELWULF, 

839-858. 
I 

ETHELBALD,          ETHELBERT, 

t860.                              t8C6. 

ETHELRED, 

tsri. 

ALFRED, 

871-901. 

EDWARD, 

901-924. 

I 

I 
ATHELSTAN, 
924-940. 

1 

EDMUND  I, 

940-946. 
1 

EDRED, 
946-955 

I 
EDWY. 
955-959. 

EDGAR, 
959-975. 
1 

EDWARD  THE  MARTYR,    ETHELRED  THE  UNREADY=1.  Elgiva=2.  Emma. 

975-979.  979-1016. 


EDMUND  IRONSIDE, 
t!016. 


EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR, 
1042-1066. 


CHAPTER  IX 
The    Moslem    World    (750-1095) 

SUMMARY. — Within  a  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Mohammed 
his  followers  had  conquered  a  large  part  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe. 
They  also  advanced  rapidly  in  civilization.  Their  skill  in  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  manufacturing,  and  their  knowledge  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  were  greater  than  those  possessed  by  the  Christians  in  the  west 
of  Europe.  Between  750  and  1050  the  latter  reconquered  portions  of 
the  territory  which  had  been  held  by  the  Mohammedans.  In  the  elev- 
enth century  the  Seljukian  Turks  brought  new  forces  to  the  aid  of 
Islam,  and  the  Christian  countries  were  again  exposed  to  conquest. 

DURING  the  first  hundred  years  after  the  death  of  Mo- 
hammed (632)  his  followers  conquered  the  greater  part  of 

...       the  civilized  world.     About  the  middle  of  the 

Advance  ol  the 

Mohammedans  eighth  century  their  advance  was  checked, 
checked.  both  jn  ^he  east  and  in  the  west.  This  was 

due  to  internal  dissensions,  caused  by  the  usurpation  of  the 
Abbassides,  the  rebellion  of  provincial  governors,  and  the 
revolt  of  subject  races. 

Mohammed  left  no  male  descendants,  and  the  first  ca- 
liphs, or  "  successors  "  of  the  prophet,  were  elected.  Very 
soon  a  contest  for  the  supreme  power  broke 
out  between  the  Ommiads,  members  of  one  of 
the  leading  families  of  Mecca,  and  the  family 
of  the  prophet.  In  661  the  Ommiads  triumphed  and  made 
the  caliphate  hereditary  in  their  family.  The  descendants 
of  Mohammed's  family  refused  to  consider  the  Ommiads 
as  legitimate  caliphs  and  plotted  to  overthrow  their  power. 
In  750  the  Abbassides,  who  were  descendants  of  the  prophet's 
86 


THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  87 

uncle,  raised  an  army  of  the  discontented,  assassinated  the 
Ommiad  caliph,  and  became  supreme. 

The  first  province  to  revolt  was  Andalusia  (Spain).    One 

of  the  Ommiads  escaped  the  slaughter,  in  which  almost  all 

of  his  relatives  were  involved,  and  after  five 

The  emirate  of    vears  of  wandering,  landed  in  Spain.     There 

Cordova,  755,       f  ... 

he  gained  many  adherents,  and  within  about  a 
year  hecame  the  ruler  of  all  Mohammedan  Spain,  with  the 
title  of  emir,  or  commander.1 

Even  before  the  founding  of  the  emirate  of  Cordova 
the  conquests  of  the  Moors  in  western  Europe  had  been 

checked  by  the  revolt  of  the  Berbers.  The 
Revolt  of  latter,  the  inhabitants  of  northern  Africa,  had 

been  conquered  and  converted  to  Islam  only 
after  seventy  years  of  war.  In  740  they  rose  in  rebellion 
against  the  caliph.  After  that  time  the  latter  was  unable 
to  send  reenforcements  to  Spain  or  to  get  recruits  from 
Africa. 

In  spite  of  these  losses  the  reign  of  the  Abbasside  ca- 
liphs opened  brilliantly.    The  Arabs  in  their  conquests  had 

come  into  contact  with  highly  civilized  nations, 
Civilization  of  an(j  jja(j  acquired  information  and  absorbed 

culture  from  their  conquered  subjects.  At 
Bagdad,  to  which  the  Abbassides  moved  their  capital  in 
762,  they  fell  under  Persian  influence.  This  was  fortunate, 
as  Persia  had  been  for  four  centuries  the  seat  of  a  highly 
developed  civilization,  which  derived  its  main  elements 
from  Greece,  China,  and  India.  The  influence  of  the  first 
had  been  especially  prominent,  as  the  Persians  had  studied 
eagerly  the  philosophy  and  science  of  ancient  Greece. 

Bagdad  under  Haroun  al-Kaschid,  the  caliph 

of  the  A  rabian  Nights,  became  a  center  of  learn- 
ing and  the  seat  of  great  luxury.  The  palace,  with  the 
buildings  which  housed  its  officials  and  servants,  formed 

1  In  929  his  descendants  assumed  the  title  of  caliph. 


88 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


a  city  in  itself.  It  was  thronged  with  theologians,  poets, 
nmcicians,  officials,  and  ambassadors  from  distant  nations. 
Twenty-two  thousand  rugs  carpeted  the  floor  of  the  palace ; 
thirty-eight  thousand  pieces 
of  tapestry  hung  on  the  walls. 
A  hundred  lions,  each  with 
its  keeper,  added  to  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  spectacle  when 
an  ambassador  was  received. 
At  the  nuptials  of  Mamnn  "  a 
thousand  pearls  of  the  largest 
size  were  showered  on  the  head 
of  the  bride.''"  The  talos  in 
the  Arabian  Nights  reflect 
very  faithfully  the  luxury  and 
life  of  Bagdad  under  its  early 
rulers. 

This  civilization  was  not 

confined  to  Bagdad  or  Persia. 

From   the   Eu- 

i>hrates  to  the 

Atlantic  Ocean 
extended  the  Mohammedan 
dominions,  inhabited  by  peo- 
ple of  many  races,  but  all  speaking  the  Arabic  language 
and  governed  by  the  same  laws.  Each  country  contributed 
its  own  knowledge  to  the  sum  total ;  the  Arabs  unified  the 
whole  and  carried  it  throughout  their  empire,  raising  the 
more  barbarous  countries  to  a  higher  civilization. 

Spain  under  their  rule  became  the   most 

prosperous  and  enlightened  country  of  Eu- 
rope. Christian  students  from  Germany,  France,  and  Eng- 
land studied  in  Mohammedan  Spain,  where  they  came  into 
contact  with  learned  scholars  from  all  parts  of  the  Moslem 


ARAB  HORN.» 


Arab  Spain, 


Said  to  have  been  given  to  Charles  the  Great  by  Haroun  al-Raschid. 


THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  89 

Art  was  cultivated,  literature  was  cherished,  sci- 
ence was  studied  wh^n  the  rest  of  Europe,  except  Constan- 
tinople, was  in  its  darkest  age.  Women  in  Spain  vied  with 
the  men  in  the  pursuit  of  learning ;  some  were  skilled  in 
medicine ;  others  gave  public  lectures  on  scientific  subjects. 
Much  of  the  prosperity  of  Spain  was  due  to  the  wise 
policy  of  the  rulers  in  their  treatment  of  the  conquered 
races.  The  Christians  suffered  few  hardships ;  their  taxes 
were  light;  their  churches  were  unmolested,  and  their 
property  was  secure.  The  only  persecution 
was  due  to  the  intemperate  zeal  of  some  rash 
fanatics  who  sought  martyrdom,  and  their  conduct  was  de- 
nounced justly  and  severely  by  a  Christian  council.  The 
Christian  bishops  were  appointed  by  the  emir,  but  ordi- 
narily he  appointed  the  candidates  chosen  by  the  Chris- 
tians. The  public  offices  were  open  to  men  of  all  races 
and  religions,  and  many  of  them  were  held  by  Slavs,  Jews, 
and  Christians,  who  were  promoted  to  high  positions. 
One  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to  Otto  the  Great  by  the 
caliph  of  Cordova  was  a  Christian  bishop. 

An  Arab  maxim  says,  "  It  is  one  of  the  chief  duties  of 
the  government  to  construct  the  canals  necessary  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil."     The  Arab  rulers  in 
Spain   acted  upon  this  maxim,  and  put  into 
practice  the  art  of  irrigation  learned  in  Egypt.     Water- 
wheels  were  introduced,  distributing  canals  were  dug,  so 
that  Spain  became  a  vast  garden.     Rice,  sugar-cane,  hemp, 
cotton,  asparagus,  artichokes,  beans,  melons,  oranges,  apri- 
cots, palms,  yellow  roses  and  other  flowers  which  had  been 
brought  from  the  East,  were  cultivated  there. 

Silk-weaving  is  said  to  have  employed  the  labor  of  130,000 
men  in  the  caliphate  of  Cordova.     The  island  of  Majorca 
was  famous  for  its  pottery,  of  which  the  manu- 
T  nffl    f acture  was  transferred  later  to  Italy,  where  it 
became  known  as  "  majolica."     The  sword-blades  of  To- 
ledo acquired  a  fame  which   has  become  proverbial.     In 


90  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

addition,  the  Moors  of  Spain  were  renowned  for  their  orna- 
mental metal  work  and  exquisite  ivory  carvings. 

The  products  of  Spain  were  exchanged  for  wares  from 
Asia  and  Africa.  The  Mohammedans  traded,  by  vessels 
and  caravans,  with  China,  from  which  they  obtained  silk, 
tea,  lac,  and  china ;  with  Calcutta  and  Sumatra, 
whence  they  brought  spices,  drugs,  pearls,  and 
precious  stones;  with  Africa,  which  supplied 
them  with  slaves,  ivory,  and  gold  dust ;  with  the 
country  to  the  north  of  the  Black 
Sea,  which  furnished  furs  and  am- 
ber. Moreover,  they  carried  on  an  active  trade 
with  Constantinople,  and  later  with  the  cities  of 
Italy.  Eeligious  differences  were  not  permitted 
to  interfere  with  the  trade.  Bagdad  was  the  cen- 
ter of  this  important  commerce,  but  Arab  Spain 
shared  in  its  advantages.  The  bazaar,  or  the 
merchants'  quarter,  was  an  important  part  of 
each  Spanish  city. 

A  people  so  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civiliza- 
tion was  naturally  devoted  to   study.      Schools 
and  universities  flourished,  and  were  supported 
partly  by  the  Government,  partly  by  private  lib- 
erality.    The  most  important   study  was  theol- 
ogy, with  which  law  and  grammar  were  closely 
associated.     Philosophy,   especially  the  writings 
of  Aristotle,  was  studied    enthusiastically,   and 
it  was  from  the  Arab  commentaries  and  trans- 
lations that  the  Christians  later  acquired  much 
of  their  knowledge  of  Aristotle's  works.     Libra-    DAGGER  l 
ries  were  common,  and  a  caliph  in  the 
tenth  century  collected  400,000  volumes.     He 
sent  his  agents  everywhere  to  copy  books,  he  employed 
authors  to  write  new  ones,  and  he  is  said  to  have  read  them 

1  Said  to  have  been  given  to  Charles  the  Great  by  Haroun  al-Raschid. 


INTERIOR,   MOSQUE   OF   CORDOVA. 


THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  91 

all.  This  was  probably  the  largest  library  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  was  not  surpassed  in  size  until  long  after  the 
invention  of  printing.  In  the  west  of  Europe,  at  the 
same  period,  a  library  of  a  thousand  volumes  was  practi- 
cally unknown. 

Mathematics  formed  a  favorite  subject  of  study  among 

the  Arabs.      In   arithmetic   they   employed  the   so-called 

Arabic   figures,   including   the   zero.     Among 

Mathematics.      the  Q]irjstjans  at  ^he  same  period  the  Eoman 

figures  were  used  almost  universally;  later  these  were 
called,  in  contrast  with  the  Arabic,  the  "  sweating  calcu- 
lators." Early  in  the  ninth  century  an  Arab  mathemati- 
cian composed  a  text-book  on  algebra,  which,  after  some 
centuries,  was  introduced  into  Europe  and  was  used  until 
the  end  of  the  middle  ages.  Other  Arabs  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  developed  spherical  trigonometry  and 
mathematical  physics,  which  the  Christians  acquired  from 
them  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  Arabs  in  Spain  taught  geography  by  the  use  of 
globes.  By  their  study  of  alchemy,  in  which  they  sought 
especially  the  "philosopher's  stone,"  which 
wollld  transmute  base  substances  into  gold, 
and  the  "elixir  of  life,"  which  would  bestow 
the  gift  of  perpetual  youth,  they  acquired  a  considerable 
knowledge  of  chemistry,  producing  a  number  of  new  com- 
pounds, such  as  alcohol,  aqua  regia,  and  corrosive  subli- 
mate. In  medicine  they  based  their  science  on  the  wri- 
tings of  the  Greeks,  and  developed  their  knowledge  until 
they  became  the  most  skilful  doctors  in  the  medieval 
world. 

By  the  Koran,  Mohammedans  are  forbidden  to  make 
representations  of  living  objects.     This   prevented  them 
from  making  much  progress  in  sculpture  and 
painting,  although  there  are  some  well-known 
transgressions  of  the  prophet's  command,  notably  the  fa- 
mous court  of  the  lions  in  the  Alhambra.    In  architecture 


92 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


they  were  unhampered,  and  they  devoted  themselves  espe- 
cially to  this  branch  of  art.  At  first  they  copied,  with 
slight  changes,  Byzantine  buildings ;  gradually  they  com- 
bined with  the  Byzantine  forms  other  motives  which  they 
found  in  Persia  and  the  East,  or  which  they  themselves 
invented.  Their  buildings  are  marked  by  ogives,  arabesques, 
and  pendentives,  but  above  all  by  the  ornamentation, 
which  they  carried  to  an  extreme.  The  ceilings  and  inte- 
rior walls  are  covered  with  arabesques  of  geometrical  fig- 
ures, of  foliage,  or  of  Arabic  inscription. 

Frequently  the  Europeans,  in  acquiring  new  informa- 
tion from  the  Arabs,  borrowed  the  Arabic  term.  Many 
words  in  the  modern  languages  of  Europe  beginning  with 
al — the  definite  article  in  Arabic — betray  their  origin  and 
show  the  source  from  which  the  knowledge  was  obtained. 
For  example,  we  have  in  English  algebra, 
alcohol,  alembic,  alkali,  alche- 

Wordsfrom  almanac,    Aldebaran   the 

Arabic,  J ' 

star,  and   many   other   words. 

In  a  similar  way  damask  from  Damascus, 
muslin  from  Mosul,  cordovan  from  Cor- 
dova, and  morocco,  show  in  their  names 
the  sources  from  which  they  were  first  ob- 
tained. Sugar,  cotton,  and  other  names 
were  borrowed  without  the  article  al. 

While  this  civilization  was  being  de- 
veloped, the  power  of  the  caliph  of  Bagdad 
Integration  WaS  declining  rapidly.  His 

oftheMoham-  subjects  were  no  longer  ani- 
medan  world,  mated  by  intense  zeal  for  com- 
bat. Luxury  and  refinement  had  created  new  tastes.  Ee- 
ligious  unity  of  feeling  had  disappeared,  as  new  sects  had 
arisen ;  the  different  sects  were  bitterly  opposed  to  one 
another,  and  were  unwilling  to  join  in  a  common  war  of 
propagation  or  defense.  Political  unity  had  been  destroyed 
by  the  revolt  of  the  Berbers  and  by  the  establishment  of 


ARAB  COIN. 

(Obverse  and  re- 
verse. ) 


THE  MOSLEM  WORLD  93 

the  Ommiad  dynasty  in  Spain.  The  caliphs  at  Bagdad, 
weakened  by  luxury,  were  losing  control  over  their  offi- 
cials, so  that  one  province  after  another  revolted.  As  the 
caliph's  power  declined,  he  lost  his  prestige,  so  that  in  the 
tenth  century  two  rival  caliphates  were  established — one  at 
Cairo  and  the  other  at  Cordova ;  and  each  ruler  claimed  to 
be  the  true  caliph — the  successor  of  the  prophet.  The  pro- 
cess of  disintegration  went  on  rapidly.  In  the  eleventh 
century  the  East  was  divided  into  petty  states,  each  ruled 
by  a  conqueror  or  military  commander,  recognizing  only 
in  the  most  formal  way  the  authority  of  any  caliph.  In 
Spain  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  broke  up,  in  1033,  into 
seven  small  kingdoms. 

As  the  Mussulmans  became  weaker  the  Christians  suc- 
ceeded in  reconquering  some  of  the  lands  which  they  had 
formerly  held.  All  of  southern  Gaul  was  re- 
gained-  In  SPain  the  descendants  of  the  Chris- 
tians who  had  retreated  beyond  the  mountains 
in  the  northwest,  took  one  town  after  another  until,  by  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  one-third  of  Spain  had 
come  into  their  power.  Sardinia  was  reconquered  about 
1050,  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  about  1060.  In  the  east 
the  Byzantine  emperors  were  recovering  gradually  much 
of  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  Although  the  period  from  750 
to  1050  is  marked  by  no  great  wars  between  Christians  and 
Moslems,  and  although  the  Moslems  rallied  occasionally 
and  recaptured  some  places,  the  result  was  a  great  advance 
for  the  Christians,  who  seemed  destined  to  recover  all  the 
lands  formerly  included  in  the  Eoman  Empire. 

For  centuries  Mongolian  or  Turkish  tribes  from  the  in- 
terior of  Asia  had  been  pressing  to  the  westward.     As  a 
rule  they  had  gone  to  the  north  of  the  Caspian 
and  Black  Seas,  and  had  sought  their  conquests 
and  booty  in  Europe.     But  some  had  gone  to  the  southwest 
and  had  entered  into  the  service  of  the  caliph  at  Bagdad. 
In  the  eleventh  century  a  great   Turkish  kingdom  was 


94  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

formed  by  rulers  descended  from  Seljuk,  a  legendary  hero 
of  whom  little  is  definitely  known.  The  Seljuks  conquered 
Persia,  and,  having  adopted  Islam,  were  welcomed,  in  1055, 
as  defenders,  by  the  weak  Abbasside  caliph  at  Bagdad. 
From  this  time  the  Turkish  sultan  became  supreme,  al- 
though the  caliph  remained,  theoretically,  the  religious 
ruler.  The  Seljuks,  who  were  brave  soldiers,  spread  over 
all  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  In  1071  they  won  a  decisive 
victory  at  Manzikert,  in  which  the  Byzantine  army  was 
annihilated.  Within  a  few  years  all  of  the  Asiatic  posses- 
sions of  the  Byzantine  Empire  had  fallen  under  the  rule 
of  the  Turks,  and  they  were  threatening  Constantinople. 

Fortunately  for  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the  sultan  was 
not  able  to  keep  control  over  the  Turkish  leaders,  of  whom 
each  conquered  such  territory  as  he  could  and 
established  an  almost  independent  principality. 
Internal  wars  began  at  once  among  the  Turks, 
and  their  strength  was  exhausted  in  fighting  one  another. 
The  natives  whom  they  had  conquered  were  disaifected, 
but  attempted  no  open  revolt  against  the  Turkish  garrisons 
which  held  all  the  fortresses.  But  the  dissensions  among 
the  various  emirs,  or  commanders,  made  the  Mohammedans 
weak,  and  offered  an  excellent  opportunity  to  the  Chris- 
tians for  reconquering  Asia  Minor  and  Syria. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Lane-Poole:  The  Moors  in  Spain  (New  York,  1891).  Gibbon: 
Decline  and  Fall,  chaps.  Hi,  Ivii.  Yonge :  Christians  and  Moors  in 
Spain.  Ameer  AH :  Short  History  of  the  Saracens,  chaps,  xxv,  xxxi 
(London  and  New  York,  1899). 


CHAPTER  X 
The   Byzantine   Empire 

SUMMARY. — In  the  early  middle  ages  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  the 
strongest  and  most  civilized  of  Christian  countries.  Because  of  its  po- 
sition it  served  as  a  bulwark  to  Europe  against  invasions  from  Asia. 
It  also  performed  other  services  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  fu- 
ture history  of  Europe.  It  was  enabled  to  do  this  by  its  carefully  or- 
ganized administrative  system  and  excellent  army.  It  was  constantly 
attacked  for  several  centuries,  and  lost  much  of  its  territory,  but,  al- 
though frequently  in  desperate  straits,  it  succeeded  each  time  in  main- 
taining its  position.  Toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  after 
having  repulsed  all  invaders,  it  was  ready  to  attempt  the  reconquest  of 
the  territory  which  had  been  overrun  by  the  Turks. 

DUEING  the  early  centuries  of  the  middle  ages  Con- 
stantinople was  the  most  wealthy  and  populous  city  in  Eu- 
rope. Its  inhabitants  were  the  most  artistic, 
learned,  and  highly  civilized  people  in  the 
Christian  world.  They  controlled  the  commerce  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  and  monopolized  the  manufacture  of 
many  luxuries.  They  were  governed  by  an  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  law  which  made  their  property  secure,  and  were 
protected  by  an  efficient  army  which  repelled  for  centuries 
every  attack  upon  their  city.  They  lived  in  the  midst  of 
stately  buildings,  beautiful  statues,  and  costly  works  of  art, 
which  could  be  equaled  nowhere  else. 

Travelers  from  western  Europe  were  as- 
11  tonished  to  find  such  an  enormous  city,  such 
wealth  and  refinement.  In  their  own  countries 
there  were  no  large  cities,  none  of  the  luxuries  and  few 
of  the  conveniences  of  life.  In  the  West,  learning  was  con- 
fined to  the  clergy ;  safety  in  traveling  could  be  secured 

95 


96 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


only  by  an  armed  force ;  and  the  homes  of  the  most  pow- 
erful nobles  were  rough  castles,  destitute  of  comfort,  and 
built  mainly  for  defense.  The  kings  of  France  and  Ger- 
many were  obliged  to  travel  from  one  to  another  of  their 
farms  in  order  to  secure  the  food  necessary  for  their  meals. 
Loathsome  skin  diseases  were  common,  and  there  were 
no  skilful  doctors ;  pestilences  and  famine  swept  over 
the  population  from  time  to  time.  In  Constantinople  the 
travelers  found  lighted  and  paved 
streets,  extensive  public  parks,  hos- 
pitals, and  homes  for  orphans.  Or- 
der was  preserved  by  a  well-or- 
ganized police  force ;  theaters  and 
circuses  were  maintained  for  the 
amusement  of  the  populace.  There 
were  flourishing  schools  in  which 
the  scholars  pursued  not  merely  the 
elementary  studies  taught  in  the 
West,  but  also  those  pertaining  to 
law,  medicine,  and  science.  The  no- 
bles lived  in  magnificent  buildings 
which  far  surpassed  the  palaces  of 
the  western  monarchs.  The  arti- 
sans were  comfortably  housed,  and 
worked  together  in  great  factories, 
producing  the  rich  stuffs  which  were 
so  rare  and  so  highly  prized  in  the 
West.  In  short,  they  found  a  civi- 
lization at  Constantinople  several  hundred  years  in  advance 
of  the  rude  customs  of  Germany,  France,  or  England. 

This  civilization  did  not  remain  sterile ;  it  performed 
useful  services  for  all  the  rest  of  Europe.  First  of  all  it 
protected  the  center  of  Europe  against  Mohammedan  inva- 
sions until  the  young  states  of  the  West  had  grown  strong. 


GREEK  EMPEROR.* 


1  Portrait,  of  the  early  middle  ages,  in  St.  Mark's,  Venice. 


THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE  97 

.econdly,  it  maintained  European  commerce,  until,  in  the 
iter  middle  ages,  the  cities  of  Italy  and  northern  Europe 
ervices  of  the  ka(l  become  wealthy  and  strong  enough  to  take 
yzantine  up  the  task.  Thirdly,  it  preserved  the  learn- 
mpire,  jng  an(j  civilization  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 

tomans  and  transmitted  this  priceless  heritage  to  the 
est  of  the  Christian  world — especially  during  the  thir- 
eenth,  fourteenth,  and  fifteenth  centuries.  It  spread  the 
inowledge  of  arts  and  sciences  among  all  the  people  who 
•ame  into  close  contact  with  Constantinople ;  thus  Venice 
>wed  its  wealth,  luxury,  and  refinement  to  its  dependence 
ipon  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Fourthly,  it  converted  to 
Christianity  and  civilized  the  inhabitants  of  all  eastern 
Europe.  The  debt  which  modern  Europe  owes  to  the 
nedieval  Byzantine  Empire  is  enormous. 

It  was  able  to  perform  these  services  because  of  its 
,rreat  strength  and  resources,  and  especially  because  of  the 
unique  position  which  its  capital  held  among 
^e  Srea^  cities  of  the  world.  The  situation 
of  Constantinople  was  even  more  advantageous 
.n  the  early  middle  ages  than  it  is  at  the  present  day. 
Then  the  Balkan  peninsula  was  covered  with  flourishing 
ind  wealthy  cities,  and  Asia  Minor  was  one  of  the  most 
fertile  and  populous  districts  in  the  world.  From  the  Bal- 
kan peninsula  and  Asia  Minor  Constantinople  was  able  to 
secure  a  plentiful  supply  of  foodstuffs  and  great  revenues 
in  money.  Even  at  the  present  day,  after  the  surrounding 
lands  have  been  laid  waste  by  Turkish  conquest  and  mis- 
rule, Constantinople  has  a  more  advantageous  site  than 
any  other  capital.  It  "  is  a  city  which  Nature  herself  has 
designed  to  be  the  mistress  of  the  world.  It  stands  in  Eu- 
rope, looks  upon  Asia,  and  is  within  reach  by  sea  of  Egypt 
and  the  Levant  on  the  south,  and  of  the  Black  Sea  and  its 
European  and  Asiatic  shores  on  the  north."1  It  has  a 

1  Description  of  Busbecq,  a  Flemish  traveler  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


38  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

deep,  spacious,  and  land-locked  harbor,  4  miles  long,  which 
can  be  easily  defended  against  a  hostile  fleet.  At  the  back 
of  the  city  the  peninsula  is  only  4  miles  in  width,  and  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages  the  approach  by  land  was  guarded  by 
two  walls.  The  position  of  Constantinople  was  an  impor- 
tant element  in  preserving  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

But  natural  advantages  alone  would  not  have  made  the 
empire  strong;  a  strong  government  was  needed.  Many 

of  the  emperors  were  weak  and  incapable,  but 

the  a<*ministrative  system  was  well  organized. 

Just  as  the  government  of  Old  Rome  remained 
effective  even  under  weak  or  vicious  emperors,  such  as 
Caligula,  Nero,  or  Domitian,  so  the  officials  in  New  Rome 
— Constantinople — preserved  order  and  peace  even  when 
emperors  were  assassinated  and  usurpers  assumed  the  impe- 
rial office.1 

In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  however,  the  empire 
had  the  good  fortune  to  be  ruled  by  able  emperors  of  the 

Armenian  or    Macedonian   dynasties.     Under 

the  latter  family  the  succession  to  the  throne 
was  recognized  as  hereditary ;  for  one  hundred 
and  ninety  years  (867-1057)  the  members  of  this  house 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  their  rule  was  so  firmly  estab- 
lished that  their  power  was  not  shaken  during  minorities 
Military  or-  or  when  women  reigned. 

ganization  of  In  the  eighth  century  the  old  divisions  of 

the  early  Roman  Empire  had  been  abandoned 
and  a  new  division  had  been  made  into  themes,  or  dis- 
tricts of  varying  extent.  At  the  head  of  each  theme 

1  "  It  has  been  calculated  that,  from  the  reign  of  Arcadius  (395-408) 
to  the  capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453,  out  of  107  persons — who  were 
emperors  or  associate  emperors — 12  abdicated  either  voluntarily  or 
under  compulsion  ;  12  died  in  monasteries  or  in  prison  ;  3  were  starved 
to  death  ;  18  were  blinded  or  otherwise  mutiJated ;  20  were  assassinated 
m  some  way  or  other ;  8  died  in  war  or  accidentally ;  only  34  died  in 
their  beds  "  (Bayet). 


100  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

was  an  official  who  controlled  both  the  civil  and  mili- 
tary administration  and  was  responsible  directly  to  the  em- 
peror. Independence  in  local  administration  was  taken 
away  from  the  towns,  and  these  were  governed  directly  by 
the  ruler  of  the  theme.  The  organization  was  essentially 
military,  and  the  subdivisions  were  ruled  by  officers  of  the 
army  responsible  to  the  governor  of  the  theme.  This  made 
the  central  government  stronger  and  maintained  order 
more  easily,  but  it  weakened  the  empire,  as  the  people  had 
no  interest  in,  nor  feeling  of  responsibility  for  the  govern- 
ment. Consequently,  when  invaders  conquered  any  part 
of  the  empire,  the  inhabitants  submitted  without  resistance 
to  the  new  rule. 

The  military  force  on  which  the  empire  depended  was 
well  organized  and  had  the  best  weapons  known  in  the 
middle  ages.  The  chief  strength  of  the  army 
consisted  of  cavalry  armed  with  bows  and 
lances,  and  protected  by  armor  which  was 
proof  against  ordinary  missile  weapons.  Moreover,  the  art 
of  war  was  more  fully  developed  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
medieval  world.  The  emperors  took  a  great  interest  in 
military  science ;  three  of  them  composed  important  treatises 
for  the  use  of  their  generals.  The  fortifications  were  im- 
proved and  strengthened.  But,  above  all,  the  Greek  fire 
gave  a  superiority  to  the  Byzantine  armies  and  fleets ;  this 
was  made  and  used  in  various  ways ; *  in  particular,  from 
hollow  tubes  fire-balls  were  hurled  on  the  enemy.2 

1  According  to  one  description  it  was  composed  of  sulfur,  dregs  of 
wine,  Persian  gum,  salt,  pitch,  petroleum,  and  oil  boiled  together.  It 
could  be  extinguished  only  by  vinegar  or  sand.  But  there  were  many 
different  ways  of  making  it ;  one  form  of  Greek  fire  seems  to  have  been 
very  similar  to  gunpowder.  The  Greeks  preserved  the  secret  of  its 
composition  until  about  the  year  1000 ;  after  that  it  was  used  freely  by 
the  Saracens  in  their  battles  with  the  crusaders. 

8  Compare  the  Roman  candles  of  to-day.  This  was  the  nearest 
approach  to  the  modern  gun. 


These  eff< 


THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE  101 


iese  effective  weapons  were  necessary  to  the  preserva- 
t  on  of  the  empire,  which  was  compelled  for  centuries  to 
be  on  the  defensive.     In  the  seventh  century 

the  Slavs  had  been  tbe  most  danger<>us  ene- 
mies, and  had  made  settlements  in  many  parts 
•  f  the  Balkan  peninsula.  The  emperors,  after  long  and 
Imost  fruitless  attempts  to  expel  them,  were  obliged  to 
3ave  them  in  possession  of  the  districts  which  they  had 
ccupied.)  (In  many  parts  of  Peloponnesus  they  had  dis- 
•laced  the  ancient  Greek  inhabitants ;  but  as  they  settled 
isually  in  the  country  districts,  the  towns,  especially 
Athens,  Thebes,  and  Corinth,  remained  Greek.  Some  Slavs 
vere  given  lands  in  Asia  Minor ;  for  example,  30,000 
yere  sent  thither  in  688.  In  the  later  centuries  a  large 
mrt  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  were  the 
lescendants  of  these  Slavic  invaders  and  colonists. 

In  the  seventh  century  the  Arabs  began  to  attack  por- 
:ions  of  the  empire,  as  has  been  related  in  a  preceding 
chapter.      Syria,  Egypt,  and  northern  Africa 
irabs10  were  conquered;  early  in  the  eighth  century 

Asia  Minor  was  occupied  and  Constantinople 
was  threatened.1  In  the  ninth  and  the  early  part  of  the 
tenth  century  the  Arabs  took  possession  of  Sicily  and  some 
cities  in  the  East.  But  during  the  tenth  century,  under 
the  able  emperors  of  the  Macedonian  dynasty,  almost  all  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria  was  reconquered,  and  those  countries 
again  became  a  source  of  strength  to  the  empire. 

In  the  seventh  century  the  Bulgarians  also  began  to  in- 
vade the  empire.  In  811  their  khan  defeated  and  killed  the 
emperor,  Nicephorus  I,  whose  skull  was  made 
into  a  drinking-cup  to  grace  Bulgarian  feasts. 
Later  in  the  century  they  became  more  civilized 
from  their  contact  with  the  Slavs,  adopted  the  language  of 
the  latter,  and  were  converted  to  Christianity.  In  893 

1  See  page  6. 


102  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

their  czar,  Simeon,  proclaimed  himself  king  and  by  negotia- 
tion received  recognition  from  the  Pope.  In  889  war  had 
broken  out  again  between  the  Bulgarians  and  the  empire ; 
after  thirty-five  years,  during  which  the  former  were  suc- 
cessful everywhere,  peace  was  made,  with  an  agreement 
that  tribute  should  be  paid  by  the  emperor  to  the  Bul- 
garians. After  forty  years  of  peace,  when  the  emperor 
refused  to  pay  the  tribute,  war  was  renewed.  It  dragged  on 
without  decisive  results  until  the  emperor,  Basil  II,  took 
command  in  person  in  9.99  and  won  several  victories ;  in 
1014  he  captured  15,000  Bulgarians  and  blinded  all  except 
one  in  each  hundred ;  the  hundredth  man,  in  each  case, 
was  deprived  of  only  one  eye  and  was  compelled  to  guide 
the  others  back  to  their  homes.  This  bloody  vengeance 
discouraged  the  Bulgarians,  who  submitted  four  years  later, 
in  1018.  Basil  II  won  the  epithet  of  Bulgaroktonos,  or 
slayer  of  Bulgarians. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  tenth  century  the  Hungarians 
or  Magyars,  who  were  the  terror  of  Germany,  attacked  the 
Byzantine  Empire  also.  For  a  time  the  emper- 
<>r  paid  them  tribute,  but  after  the  victory  of 
Otto  the  Great  on  the  Lechfeld,1  the  emperor 
thought  them  less  dangerous,  and  refused  the  tribute.  The 
Hungarians  attempted  to  enforce  the  payment,  but  were 
beaten  off. 

Northmen  under  Rurik  (862-879)  had  established  them- 
selves at  Novgorod  and  founded  the  Russian  kingdom. 
From  this  date  until  1043  the  Russians  at- 
tacked  the  empire  at  various  times  and  levied 
tribute  from  it.  At  the  end  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury the  Russian  king  married  a  sister  of  the  emperor, 
Basil  II,  and  became  a  convert  to  Christianity.  After  this 
the  Russians  made  occasional  raids,  but  without  any  great 
effect  upon  the  empire. 

1  See  page  54. 


THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE  103 

This  survey  of  the  dangers  which  threatened  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire  illustrates  the  most  notable  fact  in  its  history — 

its  "constant  vitality  and  power  of  revival." 
Need  of  strong  Frequently  it  was  obliged  to  submit  and  to  pay 

tribute  to  invaders ;  then  again  it  would  re- 
cover its  strength  and  conquer  its  enemies.  Amid  such" 
dangers  despotism  seemed  almost  a  necessity.  The  empire 
had  no  natural  boundaries,  was  inhabited  by  different  races 
which  had  little  in  common,  and  was  surrounded  by  hostile 
states.  The  only  safeguard  was  a  strong  central  adminis- 
tration. 

The  Macedonian  dynasty,  after  ruling  for  one  hundred 
and  ninety  years,  died  out  in  1057.     A  period  of  anarchy 

ensued,  in  which  there  was  no  legitimate  heir, 
Attack  by  an(j  gve  usurpers  held  the  throne  in  succession 

within  a  period  of  twenty-four  years.  A  Turk- 
ish race,  which  was  said  to  number  over  half  a  million, 
crossed  the  Danube  and  ravaged  the  European  portion  of 
the  empire,  but  made  no  settlement.  In  Asia,  the  Sel- 
jukian  Turks  invaded  Armenia  and  Asia  Minor.  The  em- 
peror, after  some  unimportant  victories,  was  defeated  by 
them  in  the  battle  of  Majazikert^in  1071,  and  was  taken 
prisoner.  He  was  released  on  his  promise  to  pay  a  ransom, 
but  on  his  return  he  found  that  the  imperial  title  had  been 
usurped  by  a  rival,  who  imprisoned  and  blinded  him. 

In  1081  Alexius  Comnenus  seized  the  imperial  throne. 
He  was  a  very  able  ruler,  and,  in  spite  of  all  the  difficulties 

which  confronted  him,  he  was  successful  in  es- 

Alexius 

Comnenus,  tablishing  his  power  firmly  and  in  making  the 
1081-1118,  empire  strong  again.  Almost  as  soon  as  he 
became  emperor  he  was  compelled  to  engage  in  war  with 
the  Normans,  who,  earlier  in  the  century,  had  established 
themselves  in  southern  Italy,  and  were  now  desirous  of  ex- 
tending their  dominions  at  the  expense  of  the  Greek  em- 
pire. After  four  years  of  war  they  were  obliged  to  desist, 
and  Alexius  was  free  to  turn  his  attention  to  other  dangers. 


104  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

It  was  time,  for  the  Patzinaks — a  Turkish  race,  settled 
along  the  Danube,  which  had  threatened  the  empire  from 
time  to  time  for  several  centuries— were  ravaging  Thrace. 
It  took  nine  years  to  defeat  and  expel  them  from  the  em- 
pire. Alexius,  unwearied,  was  now  ready  for  new  wars. 

The  Byzantine  Empire,  in  1095,  after  so 
Byzantine  many  wars,  was  greatly  reduced  in  territory, 
but  was  still  wealthy  and  strong.  Its  civiliza- 
tion had  suffered  no  decline,  its  capital  was  unharmed  by 
all  the  invasions  which  had  swept  over  other  portions  of  its 
territory. 

REFERENCES 

Harrison:  Meaning  of  History  (New  York,  1894),  chaps,  xi,  xii 
Gibbon :  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  Ivii.  Harrison :  Byzantine  History 
(Rede  Lecture ;  London,  1900).  Oman :  Byzantine  Empire  (New  York, 
1898),  pp.  250-262.  Tout:  Empire  and  Papacy,  chap.  vii. 

EMPERORS  OP  THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE,  717-1204 
Syrian  (Isaurian}  Dynasty,  717-802 

Leo  III,  the  Isaurian,  717-740.  Irene,  797-802. 

Constantino  V  or  VI,  Copronymus,  Nicephorus  I,  802-811. 

740-775.  Stauracius,  811. 

Leo  IV,  the  Chazar,  775-779.  Michael  I,  Rhangabe,  811-813. 
Constantino  VI  or  VII,  779-797. 

Amorian  Dynasty,  820-867 

Leo  V,  The  Armenian,  813-820.        Theophilus,  829-842. 
Michael  II,  the  Stammerer,  820-   Michael  III,  the  Drunkard,  842- 
829.  867. 

Basilian  or  Armenian  (Macedonian)  Dynasty,  867-1057 

Basil  I,  the  Macedonian,  867-886.  Alexander,  912-913. 

Constantine  VI  (with  Basil  I),  868-  Romanus  I,  Lecapenus,  919-945.1 

878.  (As    associates    his  three    sons, 

Leo  VI,  the  Wise,  886-912.  Christopher,  Stephen,  and  Con- 

Constantine  the  VII  or  VIII,  Por-  stantine.) 

phyrogenitus,  912-958.  Romanus  II,  958-963. 

1  Usurper. 


THE  BYZANTINE  EMPIRE  105 

Basil  II,  Bulgaroctonus,  963-1025.  Michael    IV,    the    Paphlagonian, 

(As  associate  his  brother,  Con-       1034-1042. 

stantine,  1028.) x  Michael  V,  1042. 

Nicephorus  II,  Phocas,  963-969.1  Constantino  IX  or  X,  Monomachus, 
John  I,  Zimisces,  969-976.1  1042-1055.   (Reigns  with  his  wife 

Constantino   VIII    or   IX,   1025-       Zoe.) 

1028.  Theodora,  1055-1057. 

Romanus  III,  Argyrus,  1028-1034.  Michael  VI,  Stratiolicus,  1057. 

Comnenian  Dynasty,  1057-1204 

Isaac  I,  Comnenus,  1057-1059.1  Alexius  I,  Comnenus,  1081-1118. 

Constantino  X  or  XI,  Ducas,  1059-  John  or  Calojohannes,  Comnenus. 

1067.1  1118-1143. 

Eudocia,  1067-1071.1  Manuel  I,  Comnenus,  1143-1180. 

(In  the  name  of  her  sons,  Michael  Alexius  II,  Comnenus,  1180-1183. 

VII,  1067-1078,  Andronicus  and  Andronicus    I,    Comnenus,    1183- 

Constantine,  and  with  her  sec-       1185. 

ond    husband,     Romanus     IV,  Isaac  II,  Angelus,  1185-1195. 

1067-1071.)  Alexius  III,  Angelus,  1195-1203.1 

Michael  VII  (see  above),  1071-1078.1  Isaac  II  (restored), 


Nicephorus  III,  Botaniates,  1078-    Alexius  IV,  Angelus,  f12 
1081.1  Alexius  V,  Ducas,  1204.1 

1  Usurper. 


CHAPTER  XI 
The  Crusades 

SUMMARY. — In  order  to  reconquer  the  territory  overrun  by  the 
Turks  the  emperor,  Alexius,  sought  aid  from  the  West.  The  Pope,  to 
whom  he  appealed,  aroused  the  Christians,  by  an  eloquent  address,  to 
conquer  the  Holy  Land.  Hundreds  of  thousands  took  the  cross  and 
went  to  Constantinople  and  Syria.  The  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
was  established,  and  the  men  from  the  west  lived  for  two  centuries  in 
close  and  intimate  association  with  the  Greeks  and  Mohammedans. 
Moreover,  in  1204,  Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Crusaders,  and 
the  Latin  Empire  established.  The  most  important  results  of  these 
movements,  which  brought  the  inhabitants  of  western  Europe  into 
intimate  and  long-continued  relations  with  the  more  civilized  peoples 
of  the  east,  were  the  great  intellectual  advance,  and  the  enrichment 
of  France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  England. 

THE  emperor,  Alexius,  after  having  expelled  the  in- 
vaders from  the  European  portion  of  his  empire,  desired 
to  recover  Asia  Minor  and  Syria.  The  dis- 
lS  union  among  tne  Turks  seemed  to  afford  him 
an  excellent  opportunity.  But  he  felt  the 
need  of  additional  soldiers,  because  his  own  forces  had 
been  weakened  by  the  continuous  warfare  of  the  preceding 
years.  He  was  unable  to  obtain  recruits  from  Asia  Minor 
as  he  had  done  in  the  past,  consequently  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  West.  For  a  long  time  the  emperors  had 
been  accustomed  to  take  into  their  service  Danes,  English- 
men, and  other  adventurers  from  the  West,  who  formed  the 
Varangian  guard,  the  emperor's  most  efficient  corps.  In 
1074,  after  the  disastrous  defeat  in  Asia  Minor,  an  appeal 
for  troops  had  been  made  by  the  emperor  to  Gregory  VII, 
106 


THE  CRUSADES  107 

and  an  army  of  50,000  men  had  been  raised  for  the  aid  of 
the  eastern  empire.  But  the  investiture  struggle1  and 
other  troubles  had  prevented  the  Pope  from  sending  this 
assistance.  In  1095  Alexius  made  a  new  request  for  aid 
to  expel  the  Turks  from  his  Asiatic  dominions. 

The  fact  that  this  appeal  was  made  to  the  Pope  is  an 
excellent  illustration  of  the  condition  of  affairs  at  the  close 
of  the  eleventh  century.  Notwithstanding  the 
^on^  investiture  struggle,  the  Pope  was  the  only 
possible  source  of  aid  in  western  Europe.  The 
German  king  was  powerless  to  aid  Alexius ;  he  was  barely 
able  to  maintain  his  own  position  against  his  rebellious 
subjects  and  his  son.  The  French  king  was  under  the  ban 
of  excommunication,  and  possessed  too  little  real  power  to 
give  aid  to  any  one.  In  England,  William  Rufus  was  en- 
gaged in  quelling  the  revolt  of  the  barons,  which  had  been 
occasioned  by  his  tyrannical  rule.  In  Spain  the  kings  were 
occupied  in  warfare  with  the  Moors.  No  one  of  the  other 
countries  had  as  yet  secured  a  position  of  importance  in 
the  affairs  of  Europe. 

The  emperor's  ambassadors  presented  themselves  at  the 
council  of  Piacenza  in  March,  1095,  and  appealed  for  aid. 
The  Pope,  Urban  II,  took  up  the  matter  in  earnest,  and 
during  the  succeeding  months  matured  his  plans.  He 
decided  to  begin  the  movement  in  France,  where  the  peo- 
ple were  suffering  from  the  evils  caused  by  overpopulation. 
Accordingly,  at  the  council  of  Clermont,  in  November, 
after  the  other  business  had  been  finished,  he  made  an 
eloquent  address  to  the  people,  urging  them 
"*  to  undertake  a  crusade.  He  depicted  the  dan- 
gers and  disasters  which  threatened  the  By- 
zantine Empire ;  he  dwelt  upon  the  cruel  treatment  of  the 
Christians  in  the  East  and  the  desecration  of  the  holy 
places  by  the  Turks  ;  he  contrasted  the  opportunities  in 

1  See  page  59. 


108  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

"  the  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey  "  with  their  own 
sad  lot  in  France ;  he  promised  that  Christ  would  be  their 
leader,  and  that  the  journey  should  take  the  place  of  all 
other  penance  for  their  sins. 

"  Many  orations  have  been  delivered  with  as  much  elo- 
quence and  in  as  fiery  words  as  the  Pope  used,  but  no  other 
oration  has  ever  been  able  to  boast  of  as  wonderful  re- 
sults." The  people  cried  out,  "  It  is  the  will  of  God,"  and 
rushed  forward  by  thousands  to  receive  the  cross,  the  sym- 
bol of  their  vow.  For  the  Pope  had  appealed  to  the  most 
powerful  motives  of  the  age.  Many  were  incited  by  relig- 
ious zeal;  some  were  inspired  with  military 
The  results  of  ar<jor  •  others  desired  to  better  their  condition ; 
still  others  were  attracted  by  the  promise  of 
the  remission  of  penance.  In  the  minds  of  many  the  va- 
rious motives  combined,  and  it  is  impossible  to  say  which 
was  the  most  powerful  incentive.  Although  the  under- 
taking had  been  begun  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  aid  to 
the  Greek  empire,  the  Pope  and  the  crusaders  subordinated 
this  purpose  to  the  plan  of  reconquering  Jerusalem  and  of 
obtaining  possession  of  the  Holy  Land. 

During  the  winter  of  1095-1096  members  of  the  Church 
were  busily  engaged  in  preaching  the  crusade.  Peter  the 
Hermit  was  the  most  active  and  the  most  suc- 
cessful.1  He  journeyed  through  the  middle  of 
France  to  Paris,  and  from  there  to  Cologne, 
preaching  to  the  people  as  he  went.  Everywhere  he  met 
with  an  enthusiastic  reception,  and  found  many  recruits 
who  abandoned  their  homes  and  followed  him. 

The  Pope  had  fixed  August  15,  1096,  as  the  date  of  de- 
parture for  the  crusaders,  but  the  men  who  followed  Peter 
were  too  impatient  to  wait.  One  band  set  off  on  April  15  • 
a  second,  led  by  Peter  himself,  a  few  days  later;  three 

1  See  the  description  of  Peter  in  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i, 
No.  2,  p.  20. 


THE  CRUSADES 


109 


others  followed  in  rapid  succession.      These  bands  were 

composed  of  men,  women,  and  children,  mostly  French  and 

Germans ;   there  were    comparatively  few  knights.     The 

greater  part  of  the  host  which  started  with 

The  first  bands    peter  were  from  the  city  of  Cologne  and  its 
of  crusaders.  .   .    ., 

vicinity ;  as  he  marched  through  Germany  two 

bishops  and  over  twenty  knights  joined  him.  These  bands 
marched  across  Germany,  through  Hungary  and  Bulgaria, 
and  down  to  Constantinople.  Many  per- 
ished by  the  way,  some  were  driven  back, 
and  those  who  reached  Constantinople 
were  so  disorderly  that  the  emperor  urged 
them  to  cross  over  into  Asia  Minor,  where 
most  of  them  were  slaughtered  by  the 
Turks. 

During  the  summer  and  fall  of  the 
year  1096  the  great  nobles  and  the  real 
army  of  crusaders  set  out  for  the  Holy 
Land.  The  most  noteworthy  leaders 
were  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  who  after- 
ward became  the  ruler  of  Jerusalem, 
and  Bohemond,  the  son  of  Robert  Guis- 
card.  The  host  was  com- 
™y'  posed  of  men  from  all  the 
nations  of  western  Europe,  but  French 
and  Normans  were  most  numerous.  They 
marched  by  different  routes,  and  did  not 
join  together  into  one  army  until  they 
reached  the  city  of  Nicsea  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1097.  The  army  may  then  have 
numbered  some  hundreds  of  thousands, 
if  all  the  monks,  women,  children,  and  camp-followers  were 
included ;  but  the  effective  force  probably  did  not  amount 
to  over  100,000  men.  This  number,  however,  would  have 


DUKE  EGBERT  OF 
NORMANDY.1 


In  Gloucester  Cathedral. 


110  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

been  amply  sufficient  for  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
and  Palestine,  if  the  Greek  emperor  had  given  efficient  aid, 
and  if  discipline  had  been  maintained  among  the  crusaders. 
Alexius  had  asked  for  assistance,  but  had  not  counted 
upon  the  coming  of  such  a  host.  Moreover,  he  was  alarmed 
when  he  heard  that  his  old  enemy  Bohemond  was 
w^  ^e  crusaders  5  but  ^ne  opportunity  was  to'o 
tempting  to  be  neglected,  and  he  determined 
to  use  the  army  for  his  own  purposes.  As  the  leaders  ar- 
rived separately  at  Constantinople,  Alexius  endeavored  to 
obtain  from  each  one  an  oath  of  vassalage,  so  that  all  the 
conquests  might  be  subject  to  the  imperial  authority.  The 
emperor  used  every  means  to  effect  this ;  he  tried  in  turn 
violence,  bribery,  and  promises.  He  succeeded  finally  in 
obtaining  some  kind  of  an  oath  from  every  leader,  but  in 
doing  so  he  aroused  a  feeling  of  bitter  animosity  among 
the  crusaders.  After  Mcaea  had  been  besieged  and  prac- 
tically captured  by  the  crusaders,  the  latter  found  them- 
selves deprived  of  their  booty  by  the  emperor,  who  had 
persuaded  the  citizens  to  surrender  to  him.  The  lead- 
ers, whom  he  bribed,  "  withdrew  with  kindly  feelings, 
others  with  different  emotions."  After  this  the  crusaders 
received  no  aid  from  the  emperor,  and  many  came  to  re- 
gard him  as  an  enemy. 

From  Nicaea  the  army  proceeded  slowly  to  Antioch, 
which  was  taken  after  a  siege  of  over  seven  months,  and 
then  to  Jerusalem,  which  was  captured  July  15,  1099. 
There  had  been  many  delays  due  to  the  lack  of  discipline 
in  the  army  and  to  the  desire  of  the  chiefs  to  make  con- 
quests for  their  own  advantage.  A  participant  complained 
that  "  each  one  wished  only  the  greatest  possible  advantage 
to  himself,  and  thought  not  at  all  of  the  com- 
mon  g°od-"  Baldwin,  the  brother  of  Godfrey, 
had  left  the  army  in  order  to  obtain  possession 
of  Edessa.  Bohemond  had  remained  at  Antioch,  which  he 
had  secured,  and  was  more  intent  upon  building  up  a  strong 


THE  CRUSADES  111 

principality  there  than  upon  aiding  in  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem. Others  had  deserted  the  host  for  the  sake  of  hold- 
ing fortresses  which  they  had  captured;  many  more  had 
grown  disheartened  because  of  the  dangers  and  privations 
on  the  long  march,  and  had  returned  home.  There  had 
been  no  recognized  head  to  the  army,  and  no  means  of  re- 
straining the  individual  crusaders  ;  each  one  had  done  just 
as  he  pleased. 

After  conquering  Jerusalem  the  crusaders  elected  God- 
frey "  Baron  and  Defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher."  When 
he  died,  in  the  following  year,  his  brother  Baldwin  was 
elected  king.  Conquests  were  added  to  the  kingdom  from 
time  to  time  until  it  included  most  of  the  cities  and  vil- 
lages near  Jerusalem.  In  addition  the  county  of  Tripoli, 
the  principality  of  Antioch  and  the  county  of  Edessa 
were  held  by  the  Franks.1  From  north  to  south  the  ex- 
treme length  of  the  states  founded  by  the 
The  kingdom  of  crusa(iers  was  at,out  535  miles ;  the  breadth 

Jerusalem. 

was,  except  in  the  north,  50  miles  or  less. 
Much  of  this  territory  was  rocky  and  barren,  and  the  fer- 
tile portions  along  the  coast  and  those  in  the  interior  were 
separated  by  mountains.  There  were  Mohammedan  cities 
and  fortresses  scattered  along  the  whole  eastern  frontier, 
and  no  Christian  city  was  distant  more  than  a  day's  ride 
from  some  Mohammedan  stronghold.  Consequently  border 
raids  were  very  frequent. 

Their  position  forced  the  Franks  to  depend  to  a  great 
extent  upon  the  natives,  whom  they  were  obliged  to  em- 
Intimate  asso-  P^°y  constantly.  The  crusaders  were  relatively 
ciation  with  the  few  in  number  and  were  engaged  in  military 
natives,  service  or  in  commerce.  Their  lands  were  cul- 

tivated by  the  native  Syrians,  who  were  either  Christian  or 
Mohammedan ;  their  houses  were  built  and  their  churches 
adorned  by  Greeks  or  Armenian  architects  and  artists; 


A  collective  name  for  all  the  men  from  the  West, 


THE 

CKTSADING  STATES 


THE  CRUSADES  113 

their  sick  were  doctored  by  the  Jewish  or  Arab  doctors ; 
their  merchants  traded  extensively  with  all  the  natives. 
In  warfare  the  Mohammedans  and  the  westerners  learned 
to  respect  each  other's  valor ;  in  times  of  peace  they  min- 
gled freely  with  each  other  and  sometimes  intermarried. 
In  these  various  ways  the  Franks  were  brought  into  con- 
stant and  intimate  association  with  the  more  advanced 
civilizations  of  the  East.  They  acquired  new  tastes,  new 
habits,  and  new  ideals,  and  when  they  returned  they  intro- 
duced these  into  their  homes. 

The  success  of  the  Christians  in  the  early  decades  of 
the  twelfth  century  caused  the  Mohammedans  to  unite  in 
self-defense.  Zangi,  the  ruler  of  Mosul,  was  the 
first  to  check  the  advance  of  the  Christians.  He 
was  engaged  from  1127  to  1143  in  making  him- 
self supreme  over  all  the  Moslem  lords  in  the  North.  He 
then  turned  his  forces  against  Edessa,  which  he  captured 
in  1144.  The  news  of  the  fall  of  this  city  aroused  the  in- 
habitants of  western  Europe  to  renewed  exertions.  Louis 
VII  of  France  and  Conrad  III  of  Germany  led  great  armies 
to  the  Holy  Land,  but  dissensions  among  the  Christians 
caused  the  entire  failure  of  the  expedition,  and  the  kings 
returned  without  having  accomplished  anything.  Some 
imputed  their  failure  to  the  treachery  of  the  Greek  em- 
peror, but  the  majority  blamed  some  of  the  Franks  who 
lived  in  the  Holy  Land,  and  during  the  next  forty  years 
requests  for  aid  were  received  coldly  in  the  West. 

1  It  is  customary  to  give  numbers  to  certain  crusades,  namely  :  the 
first,  1096-1099;  the  second,  1147-1149;  the  third,  1189-1192;  the 
fourth,  1202-1204;  the  fifth,  1228-1229;  the  sixth,  1248-1254.  But 
there  were  many  other  great  expeditions,  notably  the  crusade  of  1101 ; 
the  German  crusade,  1197;  the  crusade  against  Damietta,  1217-1221 ; 
and  the  second  crusade  of  St.  Louis,  1270.  Almost  every  year  in  the 
twelfth  century  bands  of  pilgrims  or  crusaders  went  to  the  Holy  Land 
for  a  stay  of  a  few  months  or  longer.  Even  after  the  fall  of  Acre  in 
1291  crusades  still  continued  to  be  preached,  but  these  were  not  exclu- 
sively, or  even  mainly,  against  the  Mohammedans. 


114  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

Although  it  has  never  been  possible  to  determine  the 

exact  truth,  it  is  probable  that  the  failure  of  the  second 

crusade  was  due  to  the   attitude   of   certain 

Franks  settled  in  the  East      For  many  of  the 

crusaders  did  not  wish  to  wage  war,  but  pre- 
ferred to  maintain   cordial   relations   with   the   Moslems. 
There  had  been  a  great  change  in  the  character  of  the 
Franks   who    settled  in 
the    Holy    Land.      The 
early  crusaders  had  been 
mainly     Normans     and 
men    from    the    North 
who  loved  fighting  for  COIN  OF  BOHEMOND. 

its      Own      sake.       Those  (Obverse  and  reverse.) 

who     had     come     later 

were  to  a  great  extent  Italians  and  men  from  the  south  of 
Europe,  who  were  interested  in  commerce  and  consequently 
desired  peace.  In  general,  after  the  second  crusade,  the 
majority  of  the  Franks  who  were  living  in  Syria  were 
averse  to  war ;  the  new  arrivals  and  the  military  orders  of 
the  Templars  and  Hospitallers 1  were  the  ones  desirous  of 
fighting  with  the  infidels ;  yet  even  the  members  of  the 
two  orders  frequently  entered  into  friendly  relations  with 
the  Moslems.  The  peace  party  was  the  more  numerous 
and  was  able  usually  to  maintain  peace,  but  war  might  be 
caused  at  any  time  by  some  aggression  on  the  Mohamme- 
dans by  the  war  party. 

1  The  order  of  the  Templars  was  founded  in  1119  to  protect  pil- 
grims in  Palestine.  They  took  their  name  from  the  temple  of  Solomon, 
near  which  their  original  dwelling  was  placed.  The  order  of  the  Hos- 
pitallers grew  out  of  a  brotherhood  to  nurse  the  sick  in  the  hospital  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  established  at  Jerusalem  in  1070.  This  brother- 
hood was  changed  into  a  military  order  on  the  model  of  the  Templars. 
Its  members  were  known  later  as  Knights  of  St.  John  and  Knights  of 
Malta.  The  order  still  exists  with  its  headquarters  at  Rome.  These 
two  orders  became  the  most  powerful  defenders  of  the  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem. 


THE  CRUSADES  115 


In  1187,  during  a  period  of  truce,  one  of  the  Frankish 
lords  rashly  attacked  and  plundered  a  Mohammedan  cara- 
van.    This  caused  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.     For 
The  fall  of         most  of  the  Moslems  were  now  united  under 

u  6rU8dJ.6Uli 

the  leadership  of  Saladin,  the  great  hero  and 
the  ablest  leader  whom  the  crusaders  encountered.  Aroused 
by  this  breach  of  peace,  he  attacked  the  Christians,  annihi- 
lated their  army  in  a  single  battle,  captured  their  king, 
and  in  a  few  weeks  conquered  almost  all  the  cities  in  the 
South,  including  Jerusalem. 

The  news  of  the  fall  of  the  holy  city  aroused  Europe 
from  its  apathy  regarding  the  crusades.  Frederick  Bar- 
barossa  of  Germany,  Philip  Augustus  of  France, 
and  Richard  tlie  Lion-hearted  of  England  took 
the  cross  and  led  great  armies  to  the  East. 
Frederick  died  before  reaching  Palestine  and  his  troops 
separated,  some  continuing  their  march  as  far  as  Acre  and 
others  returning  home.  Eichard  and  Philip,  after  a  long 
siege,  succeeded  in  recapturing  Acre,  but  quarreled  so  bit- 
terly that  Philip  returned  home.  After  his  departure 
Eichard  accomplished  nothing  of  importance,  but  by  his 
personal  valor  he  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the  Mos- 
lems and  has  become  a  hero  of  romance. 

The  popes  continued  to  urge  the  need  of  a  new  crusade 
and  many  thousands  took  the  cross ;  but  little  was  accom- 
plished until  1202,  when  a  number  of  French 
knights  were  induced  to  join  in  the  movement. 
They  realized  that  it  was  necessary  to  go  by 
sea,  and  bargained  with  the  Venetians  to  furnish  vessels. 
They  met  at  Venice,  but  at  the  time  agreed  upon  compara- 
tively few  were  present,  and  these  could  not  pay  all  the  sum 
promised  for  the  vessels.  After  long  delay  they  were  per- 
suaded by  the  Venetians  to  earn  the  balance  of  the  money 
by  capturing  Zara,  a  city  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Adri- 
atic which  was  drawing  away  trade  from  Venice.  Many  of 
the  crusaders  were  opposed  to  this  because  Zara  was  a 


116  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

Christian  city,  but  were  powerless  to  prevent  it.  After  the 
capture  of  Zara  the  crusaders  were  persuaded  by  the  Vene- 
tians to  go  to  Constantinople  with  the  ostensible  purpose 

of  reinstating  Alexius, "  the 
lawful  heir,"  whose  father 
had  been  driven  out  by  a 
usurper.  Alexius  promised 
a  large  sum  of  money  and 
offered  many  inducements. 
N  OF  DANBoIT'  Although  the  Pope  ordered 

(Obverse  and  reverse.)  them  not  to  8°  to  Constan- 

tinople, the  majority  dis- 
obeyed and  succeeded  in  reinstating  Alexius  and  his  father. 
It  had  been  very  easy  for  Alexius  when  he  was  an  exile  to 
make  promises,  but  after  he  and  his  father  were  reinstated 
in  power  they  could  not  fulfil  the  agreements. 

Consequently  the  crusaders  attacked  and  sacked  the 
city  and  established  the  Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople, 
which  lasted  for  fifty-seven  years  (1204-1261).  By  the  sack 
they  obtained  a  great  amount  of  booty,  but  their  whole 
conduct  was  indefensible  and  criminal.  Constantinople 
was  a  Christian  city  and  had  been  for  centuries  tht  great 
bulwark  of  Europe  against  the  Turks.  It  was  so  weakened 
by  this  wanton  attack  that  it  never  regained  its  strength, 
and  in  1453  was  captured  with  comparative  ease  by  the 
Turks. 

Many  believed  that  the  crusades  had  failed  because  of 
the  sinful  lives  of  the  crusaders,  and  that  if  the  pure  in 
heart  should  undertake  a  crusade  under  di- 
Jrusa^611'8  vine  glance  they  would  be  successful.  This 
feeling  led  to  the  children's  crusade  in  1212, 
when  many  thousands  of  boys  and  girls,  with  some  older 
people,  started  on  a  peaceful  crusade  to  convert  the  Mos- 
lems and  to  recover  Jerusalem.  The  movement  began  near 
Paris,  and  from  there  extended  to  the  Rhine  valley.  Most 
of  the  French  children  returned  home  after  a  few  weeks, 


THE  CRUSADES  117 

without  having  left  France.  The  German  children  marched 
up  the  Rhine,  across  the  Alps,  and  down  into  Italy,  expect- 
ing the  Mediterranean  to  open  and  leave  a  passage,  as  the 
Red  Sea  had  done  for  the  children  of  Israel.  Some  were 
induced  by  crafty  men  to  embark  in  vessels,  and  were  sold 
into  slavery  to  the  Mohammedans  ;  many  remained  in  Italy ; 
the  others  returned  home  after  some  months  of  wandering. 
This  expedition  is  of  importance  because  it  illustrates  the 
extent  to  which  the  religious  zeal  for  the  crusades  still  ex- 
isted among  the  people  of  France  and  Germany. 

In  1229  Frederick  II  by  diplomacy  persuaded  the  Mos- 
lem ruler  to  cede  Jerusalem  to  the  Christians.  Later,  St. 
Louis  took  the  cross  and  attempted  to  conquer 
ies'  Egypt,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Moslem  power. 
His  campaign  began  successfully,  but  eventually  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  compelled  to  pay  a  ransom  to  secure 
his  freedom.  In  1270  he  started  on  a  second  expedition, 
which  was  directed  to  Tunis,  where  St.  Louis  died  of  the 
plague.  During  this  and  the  succeeding  centuries  there 
were  many  other  crusades  against  the  Moslems  in  the  East, 
but  none  of  especial  importance. 

After  1229  the  Franks  held  Jerusalem  for  fifteen  years, 

and  lived  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Moslems.     It  was  a 

period  of  prosperity  for  the  Christian  colonies, 

Irtssofthe         which  were  the  seats  of  expensive  commerce, 

Holy  JjtiUQi 

wealth,  and  refinement.  Bi»t  in  1244  a  new 
horde  of  Turks  swept  over  Syria  and  Palestine,  conquering 
the  cities  and  destroying  civilization.  The  Franks  lost  one 
stronghold  after  another  until  their  possessions  were  re- 
stricted to  the  single  city  of  Acre.  Finally  this  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Turks,  in  1291,  and  the  crusaders  were  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  from  the  land  which  they  had  held  for 
nearly  two  centuries. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the 
crusades  influenced  western  Europe.     During  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  great  changes  took  place  in  every 
9 


118  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

country,  and  it  is  possible  in  many  instances  to  attribute 
these  in  part  to  the  influence  of  the  crusades.  Thus, 
although  the  great  increase  in  the  power  of  the  kings  of 
France 1  was  not  caused  by  the  crusades,  the  kings  profited 
by  the  absence  of  the  adventurous  and  ambitious  men  who 
went  on  crusades.  There  were  undoubtedly  fewer  private 
wars  when  so  many  turbulent  knights  had  left  France, 
and  this  was  a  positive  blessing.  The  position  of  the 
French  peasants  was  not  changed  materially 

by  the   Crusades'  but  after  the  first  the  6vils  °f 
overpopulation,  which  had  been   so    great  in 

the  eleventh  century,  were  no  longer  felt.  Food  was  more 
plenty,  and  labor  in  greater  demand.  In  many  ways, 
which  will  be  apparent  in  the  following  chapters,  the  cru- 
sades aided  in  effecting  results  which  were  due  mainly  to 
other  causes. 

Of  the  direct  results  the  most  important  was  the  broad- 
ening of  the  intellectual  horizon.  Hundreds  of  thousands 
of  men,  women,  and  children  took  part  in  the  various  cru- 
sades. They  came  from  all  the  countries  of  western  Eu- 
rope, and  in  their  travels  were  brought  into  contact  with 
many  different  nations  and  civilizations.  They  acquired 
new  tastes  and  new  ideas.  They  lost  many  of  their 
prejudices  against  foreigners  and  foreign  ways  when  they 
were  brought  into  actual  contact  with  them.  In  fact,  they 
profited  by  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  education- 
travel  in  foreign  lands.  As  the  people  who  stayed  at  home 
were  eager  to  hear  of  the  strange  lands  and  adventures, 
poems  and  histories  of  the  crusades  were  written  in  the 
vernacular,  and  thus  more  people  shared  in  the 
intellectual  awakening.  Some  additions  to 
their  knowledge  were  made ;  for  instance,  the 
crusaders  learned  the  use  of  windmills,  and  soon  these 
were  scattered  over  all  western  Europe.  The  crusaders 

1  See  Chapter  XVIII. 


THE  CEUSADES  119 

also  learned  to  like  spiced  foods,  and  consequently  spices, 
which  had  been  very  rare  before,  came  into  common  use. 
But  more  important  than  the  special  acquisitions  was  the 
general  broadening  influence.  Yet  even  the  great  intellec- 
tual advance  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries 
was  not  due  wholly  to  the  crusades ;  it  had  begun  before 
the  first  crusade.  In  history  it  is  seldom  possible  to  attrib- 
ute any  great  change  to  a  single  cause. 

A  second  very  important  result  was  the  impetus  to  com- 
merce. Many  of  the  crusaders  went  by  sea,  and  large  ves- 
sels were  built  to  carry  them,  their  horses,  and  their  sup- 
plies. The  vessels,  on  their  return,  furnished  a  ready 
means  of  carrying  commodities  to  the  West.  The  cost  of 
transportation  was  almost  eliminated,  as  many  of  the  ves- 
sels would  have  been  compelled  to  return  empty,  if  they 
had  not  secured  these  commodities.  The  crusaders  in  the 
Holy  Land  needed  supplies  from  the  West ;  those  who  re- 
turned home  desired  the  luxuries  with  which  they  had 
become  acquainted  in  the  East.  As  crusaders  in  larger  or 
smaller  numbers  were  going  to  the  Holy  Land  by  sea  each 
year,  an  active  trade  was  maintained,  and  the  people  in  the 
West  gradually  learned  to  use  and  need  the  Oriental  prod- 
ucts. As  long  as  the  Syrian  seaports  were  held  by  the 
Christians,  it  was  from  these  cities  that  Europe  obtained 
spices,  sugar,  silks,  glassware,  dyestuffs,  and  many  other 
commodities  which  were  brought  from  China, 
India' and  Arabia-  The  Italian  ports  furnished 
most  of  the  vessels,  and  profited  especially  by 
this  trade.  From  Italy  the  eastern  commodities  were  car- 
ried over  the  Alps  and  down  the  rivers  to  the  German, 
French,  and  Flemish  cities.  From  the  latter  many  wares 
were  shipped  to  England.  This  trade  enriched  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  cities  and  aided  in  the  rise  of  the  third 
estate.1 

1  See  Chapter  XIV. 


120  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

This   commerce   necessitated   an   abundant    supply  of 
money.     Before  1204  the  crusades  did  not  bring  into  west- 
ern Europe  any  great  additions  to  the  actual 

stock  of  £old  and  silver>  but  theJ  caused  almost 
all  the  existing  stock  to  be  used  as  money. 
Wfren  the  nobles  made  their  preparations  to  leave  home 
th6y  needed  supplies  and  equipments  for  their  journey. 
They  obtained  money  to  buy  these  by  selling  or  mortgaging 
their  fiefs,  or  by  selling  privileges  to  citizens  and  others. 
The  gold  and  silver  which  had  been  hoarded,  often  in  the 
shape  of  ornaments,  were  turned  into  money  to  pay  for  the 
lands  or  privileges.  The  churches  and  monasteries  used 
much  of  their  wealth  in  this  way,  and  became  more  wealthy 
by  buying  fiefs  at  a  low  price.  The  money  which  was 
brought  into  use  circulated  rapidly,  and  furnished  the  capi- 
tal for  trade.  All  the  western  countries  were  enriched ; 
the  kings,  the  churches,  and  the  cities  shared  in  this  pros- 
perity more  than  the  nobles. 

Heraldic  devices  and  family  names  came  into  use  during 
the  time  of  the  crusades  and  mainly  from  the  conditions 

Heraldic  devices  in  the  Holy  Land-  When  clad  in  armor,  knights 
and  family  could  not  be  distinguished  easily  from  one  an- 
other. As  a  rule,  each  one  had  to  adopt  some 
device  by  which  his  fellows  could  tell  him  in  battle.  The 
sprig  of  broom-plant,1  from  which  they  took  their  name, 
marked  the  Plantagenets.  In  the  Holy  Land  this  custom 
was  widely  extended,  and  resulted  in  armorial  bearings. 
Many  of  the  terms  in  heraldry  betray  their  Eastern  origin, 
as  they  are  merely  Arabic  words  taken  over  into  French. 

Family  names  developed  rapidly  in  the  Holy  Land  for 
the  same  reason.  When  there  were  many  knights  named 
Gilbert,  or  Godfrey,  or  Stephen,  it  was  necessary  that  each 
one  should  be  known  by  some  distinctive  epithet.  In  his 
own  home,  where  the  knight  was  all-powerful,  where  he 

1  Planta  genesta. 


THE  CRUSADES  121 

was  living,  for  the  most  part,  at  his  castle  in  the  country, 
it  had  been  entirely  unnecessary  for  him  to  have  any  dis- 
tinguishing name  ;  Lord  Hugh  or  Lord  Gilbert  represented 
something  very  definite ;  but  in  the  crusading  hosts  each 
one  had  to  have  some  distinctive  epithet.  These  names 
were  derived  from  personal  peculiarities  or  from  the  place 
in  which  the  men  had  lived  previously.  Broadhead,  Strong, 
White,  Byfield,  Atwater,  will  suggest  such  derivations. 
Other  names  came  from  the  occupations  in  which  the  men 
had  been  engaged ;  Smith  and  Clark  (clerk)  are  the  most 
common  examples. 

REFERENCES 

The  best  general  work  in  English  is  Archer  and  Kingsford: 
Crusades  (Nations;  New  York,  1895).  Oman:  Byzantine  Empire, 
chaps,  xxi-xxiii,  is  valuable  for  the  Greeks  and  their  connection 
with  the  crusade.  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  2,  contains 
the  speech  of  Urban  and  other  material  for  the  crusades ;  vol.  i,  No. 
4,  contains  letters  of  the  crusaders;  vol.  iii,  No.  1,  sources  for  the 
fourth  crusade.  Lane-Poole:  Saladin  (Heroes ;  New  York,  1898)  is 
excellent.  For  the  results:  Archer  and  Kingsford,  chap,  xxviii; 
Adams:  European  History  (New  York,  1899),  pp.  217-223. 

KINGS  OF  JERUSALEM,  1100-1187 

Baldwin  I,  1100-1118.  Amalric,  1162-1174. 

Baldwin  II,  1118-1131.  Baldwin  IV,  1174-1185. 

Pulco  of  Anjou,  1131-1143.  Baldwin  V,  1185-1186. 

Baldwin  III,  1143-1162.  Guy  of  Lusignan,  1186-1187. 


CHAPTER  XII 
The   Monastic   Orders 

SUMMARY.  —  During  the  period  of  the  crusades  many  monastic  orders 
were  founded.  Cluny  was  the  most  influential  monastery,  and  the 
model  chosen  by  many  of  the  others.  In  particular,  the  "  Congregation 
of  Cluny  "  established  a  new  feature  of  great  importance  for  the  future 
influence  of  the  religious  orders.  France  was  the  especial  home  of  these 
new  orders,  and  the  Cistercians  became  the  most  famous.  This  was 
due  chiefly  to  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  a  Cistercian  monk,  who  became 
the  leading  man  in  Europe.  The  reform  movement  affected  not  merely 
the  monks,  but  also  the  priests  who  were  the  guides  of  the  people,  and 
led  to  the  establishment  of  canons  regular. 


the  age  of  the  crusades  there  was  a  wonderful 
increase  in  the  number  of  monks.  The  same  religious  fer- 
increase  in  vor  wn^cn  ^e(^  many  to  take  the  cross  caused 
number  of  others  to  enter  monasteries.  Many  new  orders 
monasteries,  o;f  monks  were  founded,  because  the  spirit  of 
asceticism,1  which  was  so  prominent  a  factor  in  medieval 
religion,  led  men  and  women  to  desire  a  life  of  stricter  dis- 
cipline and  greater  privations  than  the  rule  of  Benedict  2 
had  prescribed.  This  movement  was  most  pronounced  in 
France,  where  many  of  the  new  orders  originated,  but  it 
affected  every  country  of  western  Europe. 

In  order  to  understand  this  monastic  movement,  it  is 

1  The  practise  of  discipline  and  self-denial  as  a  religious  duty. 

2  Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  died  in  543,  wrote  the  rule  which  was 
followed  by  the  great  majority  of  monks  throughout  the  middle  ages. 
This  rule  prescribed  humility,  poverty,  and  manual  labor  for  its  fol- 
lowers. 

122 


THE  MONASTIC  ORDERS  123 

necessary  to  go  back  to  the  foundation  of  Cluny,  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  in  Burgundy.  During  the  internal  wars 
and  invasions  of  the  latter  half  of  the  ninth 
Foundation  of  century  many  monasteries  had  fallen  under 
the  power  of  worldly  men,  who  used  their  po- 
sitions to  satisfy  their  own  ambition  or  greed.  The  life  of 
the  inmates  became  less  strict,  and  the  work  of  education 
was  to  a  great  extent  abandoned.  The  wealth  which  had 
been  accumulated  was  used  for  the  enjoyment  of  the  monks 
or  to  satisfy  the  worldly  ambition  of  their  rulers.  The 
feudal  nobles  who  had  usurped  power  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts tried  to  obtain  control  of  the  monasteries,  and  when 
they  succeeded  in  doing  so,  used  their  power  for  the  pur- 
pose of  private  gain.  Sometimes  they  appointed  as  abbots l 
their  children  or  their  retainers.  In  order  to  counteract 
these  evils,  the  monastery  of  Cluny  was  founded  in  910,  and 
was  placed  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  Pope.  No 
other  power,  lay  or  clerical,  was  to  exercise  any  authority 
over  it  or  to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  freedom  of  its 
monks. 

At  Cluny  the  life  of  the  monks  was  regulated  by  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict ;  but  as  it  had  an  ample  endowment, 
manual  labor  was  not  necessary,  and  was  in- 
sisted  upon  only  to  preserve  a  spirit  of  humil- 
ity. The  monks  were  required  to  make  bread, 
to  do  weeding,  and  to  perform  other  duties  which  did  not 
consume  a  great  amount  of  time.  Their  days  were  spent 
mainly  in  religious  services,  in  the  copying  of  manuscripts, 
in  studying  both  sacred  and  profane  literature,  and  in 
teaching  others.  The  last  was  held  to  be  very  important, 
and  Cluny  soon  became  one  of  the  great  centers  of  educa- 
tion in  the  west  of  Europe.  The  revenues  not  actually 
needed  for  the  support  of  its  members  were  devoted  to 
charity.  As  many  as  seventeen  thousand  poor  people  re- 

1  The  abbot  was  the  head  of  the  monastery. 


124  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

ceived  assistance  in  a  single  year  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  eleventh  century.  In  a  time  of  famine  the  sacred  ves- 
sels were  sold  in  order  to  provide  food  for  the  starving 
peasants. 

In  the  earlier  centuries,  whenever  a  monastery  had  be- 
come overcrowded,  a  new  and  independent  establishment 
had  been  founded,  but  the  offshoots  were  in  no 
The  oongrega-     way  subject  to  the  parent  house.     If  the  dis- 

tionofCluny,  .  J          J  r 

ciplme  became  lax,  or  it  a  monastery  tell  under 
a  dissolute  ruler,  there  was  great  difficulty  in  correcting 
the  evils.  Cluny  adopted  the  plan  of  keeping  all  its  new 
foundations  under  the  rule  of  its  abbot.  Officers,  known 
as  priors,  who  were  subordinate  to  him,  were  appointed  to 
rule  the  different  houses  ;  they  were  required  to  report  reg- 
ularly, and  their  monasteries  were  visited  frequently  by  the 
abbot.  This  plan  worked  so  well  that  many  independent 
houses  were  affiliated,  and  the  collective  body  was  known 
as  the  Congregation  of  Cluny.  In  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century  this  was  composed  of  over  two  thousand  monas- 
teries, situated  in  different  countries,  but  all  directed  by  one 
abbot.  The  members  of  this  great  congregation,  which 
possessed  enormous  wealth  and  influence,  worked  as  a  unit 
to  carry  out  the  policy  and  to  effect  the  reforms  which  the 
Cluniacs  desired. 

In  particular,  they  tried  enthusiastically  to  reform  the 
Church  and  to  free  it  from  all  control  by  kings  or  feudal 
nobles.  They  believed  that  the  power  of  the 
P°Pe  sn°uld  be  increased  and  established  more 
firmly  over  all  Christians.  JShey  thought  that 
members  of  the  clergy  should  be  wholly  free  from  all 
worldly  interests,  and  should  devote  themselves  entirely  to 
the  service  of  the  Church.  Accordingly,  they  sought  to 
root  out  simony,  to  compel  the  priests  to  live  a  life  of 
celibacy,  and  to  prevent  lay  rulers  from  exercising  any  con- 
trol over  elections  to  clerical  offices.  They  were  of  very 
great  assistance  to  the  popes  in  the  investiture  struggle — 


126  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

in  fact,  the  ideas  which  Hildebrand  attempted  to  put 
into  practise  were  the  outgrowth  of  the  ideals  held  at 
Cluny. 

This  impetus  for  reform  was  felt  widely,  in  England,  in 
Germany,  and  especially  in  Italy.  In  the  last-named  coun- 
try, about  1018,  St.  Romuald  founded  the  order 
Camaidoli  °"^  Camaldoli,1  which  became  a  great  support 
to  the  papacy,  and  held  much  the  same  posi- 
tion for  Italy  that  Cluny  did  for  France.  Among  its  most 
famous  members  were  Peter  Damiani,  a  reformer  and 
writer  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  Gratian,  the  author  of 
the  Decretum.2 

France  was  the  country  which  was  most  profoundly 
affected,  and  new  orders  were  founded  there  with  great 
rapidity.  The  order  of  Grammont 3  was  estab- 
lished in  1073  by  Stephen,  a  nobleman  who  had 
been  especially  influenced  by  the  example  of  the  hermits 
whom  he  had  seen  in  Italy.  After  his  return  to  France  he 
led  a  life  of  the  most  extreme  asceticism  for  fifty  years, 
eating  nothing  but  bread  and  drinking  only  water.  Others 
were  attracted  to  him  by  his  holiness  and  imitated  his  aus- 
terities, so  that  he  soon  had  many  followers.  St.  Stephen 
did  not  wish  them  to  be  called  monks,  but  merely  "  good 
men."  They  were  to  practise  absolute  poverty,  and  were  to 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  management  of  any  property 
which  the  order  held.  This  last  provision  was  disastrous, 
for  the  lay  brethren  who  were  in  charge  of  the  property 
attempted  to  control  the  "  good  men."  This  caused  inter- 
nal strife,  and  led  to  the  ruin  of  the  order. 

The  Carthusian4  order  was  founded  in  1084  by  St. 
Bruno,  who,  like  St.  Stephen,  sought  to  establish  a  more 

1  Camaidoli  was  a  monastery  in  the  Apennines,  near  Arezzo. 
8  See  Chapter  XVI. 

3  Near  Limoges. 

4  Derived  from  Chartreux,  the  name  given  to  the  spot  where  the 
order  originated. 


SOME  OF  THE 

MONASTERIES 


100  150  200 

Note :  Monasteries  indicated  by  circles. 
Only  the  more  important  ones  are 
shown. 


Longitude  East    2     from  Greenwich      4 


128 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Carthusians. 


ascetic  form  of  life  than  that  followed  in  the  Benedictine 
monasteries.  He  chose  for  his  dwelling  a  spot  in  the  moun- 
tains remote  from  human  habitation ;  his  fol- 
lowers were  to  wear  haircloth  shirts,  to  eat  the 
most  meager  food,  to  live  in  almost  perpetual  silence,  and 
to  engage  in  manual  labor.  Each  monk  had  his  own  cell, 
where  he  worked,  ate,  and  slept ;  meditation  and  prayer 
were  his  most  important  occupations.  But  St.  Bruno  or- 
dered them  also  to  study  and  copy  manuscripts.  The  order 
increased  rapidly  in  numbers,  and 
soon  its  houses  were  scattered  over 
all  western  Europe.  In  France,  each 
of  their  homes  was  called  a  Char- 
treuse; in  England,  a  Charter-house. 
Although  they  obtained  great  wealth, 
they  continued  the  life  enjoined  by 
their  founder.  Their  magnificent 
buildings  still  attest  the  greatness 
of  their  order. 

The   preaching  of  the  crusades 
caused  many  to  repent  and  to  en- 
deavor to  lead  a  more 

Impetus  to 

monasticism        Christian     life.      Peter 
from  the  the   Hermit,  the   great 

preacher  of  the  first 
crusade,  was  especially  successful  in 
reforming  evil  customs.  Each  new 
summons  to  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Land  caused  a  reformation  in  man- 
ners and  a  greater  religious  fervor.  Many  who  came  under 
the  spell  of  the  preacher  preferred  to  atone  for  their  sins 
by  entering  a  monastery  rather  than  by  going  on  a  crusade, 
with  which  so  many  worldly  motives  were  combined.  A 
monk,  who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury, said  that  of  the  thousands  who  were  converted  at 
the  time  of  the  second  crusade  by  St.  Bernard's  preaching, 


PILGRIM. 


THE  MONASTIC  ORDERS  129 

those  who  were  worthy  were  sent  by  him  into  monasteries, 
the  others  were  ordered  to  go  to  the  aid  of  the  Holy  Land. 
Although  this  statement  is  not  strictly  accurate,  it  repre- 
sents what  actually  took  place  on  many  occasions,  because 
of  the  conviction  that  it  was  more  holy  to  take  the  monas- 
tic vows  than  to  go  on  a  crusade. 

There  were  many  other  new  orders,  of  which  the  most 
important  was  the  Cistercian,1  founded  in  1099.  Its  mem- 
bers were  to  lead  a  life  of  extreme  asceticism, 
wholly  apart  from  the  world.  The  abbeys  or 
monasteries  were  to  be  built  far  from  cities,  and  were  to 
possess  only  such  property  as  could  be  cultivated  by  the 
monks.  Nothing  was  to  be  allowed  which  would  bring 
the  latter  into  contact  with  secular  affairs.  They  were 
never  to  take  charge  of  parishes  nor  to  teach  schools.  Edu- 
cation was  not  necessary  for  them — it  was  enough  if  they 
could  say  a  few  prayers.  They  were  to  cook  their  own 
meager  repasts.  Their  churches  were  to  be  wholly  without 
ornamentation ;  they  were  to  have  bare  walls,  no  stone  tow- 
ers, no  stained-glass  windows,  no  organs,  and  no  gold  or 
silver  crosses.  Everything  must  be  reduced  to  the  bare  ne- 
cessities. Their  robes  were  to  be  of  undyed  woolen  cloth, 
and  consequently  were  of  a  grayish-white  color ;  hence  the 
Cistercians,  in  contrast  with  the  black-robed  Cluniacs,  were 
styled  the  white  monks.  This  extreme  asceticism  answered 
the  needs  of  the  age,  and  the  order  soon  became  even  more 
highly  revered  and  influential  than  Cluny. 

This  success  was  due  in  great  part  to  St. 
Clairyaui:  Bernard,  who  was  for  a  quarter  of  a  century 
the  most  influential  man  in  Europe.  Born  of  a 
noble  family,  he  entered  the  Cistercian  order  in  his  youth, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  once  by  piety  and  zeal.  His 
enthusiastic  persuasions  induced  his  brothers  and  relatives, 

1  Derived  from  the  original  house  at  Citeaux,  between  Dijon  and 
Chalon. 


130  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

to  the  number  of  thirty,  to  join  the  order.  His  absolute 
faith  and  intense  love  of  asceticism  made  of  him  a  per- 
fect monk ;  his  eloquence,  piety,  and  ability  caused  him 
to  become  the  arbiter  between  kings  and  rival  popes.  His 
keen  knowledge  of  affairs,  excellent  judgment,  and  execu- 
tive ability  caused  his  aid  to  be  sought  on  every  important 
occasion ;  he  responded  to  every  call  and  gave  his  services 
wherever  they  were  needed  because  he  felt  it  to  be  a  duty ; 
but  he  longed  passionately  to  return  to  his  cell  apart  from 
the  world.  He  had  a  great  contempt  for  study  and  for 
appeals  to  the  human  reason,  believing  that  faith  was  all- 
sufficient  and  knowledge  unnecessary.  He  clid  all  in  his 
power  to  oppose  the  growth  of  the  schools  at  Paris.  In 
one  sermon  before  the  students  he  exclaimed,  "  Flee  from 
Babylon  and  save  your  souls  " ;  whereupon  twenty  of  the 
students  left  all  and  followed  him  to  become  monks.  It  is 
difficult  to  understand  his  complex  character,  but  in  study- 
ing his  life  it  is  easy  to  see  that  he  was  a  man  of  a  singu- 
larly lovable  character  and  of  commanding  ability ;  one  of 
the  world's  great  men. 

He  founded  the  monastery  of  Clairvaux,  which  became 
the  model  for  the  whole  Cistercian  order.  When  two 
rival  popes  were  elected,  in  1130,  St.  Bernard  declared  in 
favor  of  Innocent  II,  who  had  received  the  smaller  number 
of  votes,  but  whom  he  considered  the  more  worthy.  By 
his  eloquence  he  persuaded  Louis  VI  of  France,  Henry 
I  of  England,  and  the  emperor,  Lothair,  of  Germany,  to 
accept  the  candidate  whom  he  favored.  He  won  over  the 
Milanese,  and  after  eight  years  of  papal  schism  had  the 
satisfaction  of  seeing  Innocent  recognized  by  the  whole 
Church.  This  was  acknowledged  by  all  contemporaries 

to  be  the   work   of  Bernard  alone.      He  also 
What  he  did,  .,    ,      ,, 

reconciled    the    emperor,    Lothair,    with    the 

Hohenstaufens,  who  had  opposed  his  claims.  He  estab- 
lished peace  between  Genoa  and  Pisa,  which  were  bitter 
rivals.  He  was  influential  in  getting  papal  recognition  for 


THE   MONASTIC   ORDERS  131 

the  Knights  Templar,  and  the  greater  part  of  their  rule 
was  his  work.  He  preached  the  second  crusade  and  in- 
duced the  emperor,  Conrad,  of  Germany,  to  take  the  cross. 
Conrad  at  first  refused  to  do  so,  but  could  not  withstand 
the  eloquence  of  Bernard;  astonished  at  his  own  action, 
the  emperor  called  his  sudden  change  of  heart  a  "  miracle 
of  miracles."  Bernard  was  foremost  in  every  work  of  re- 
form and  in  combating  the  heresies  of  the  day.  In  fact, 
from  1125  to  1153,  although  he  held  no  official  position,  he 
was  the  arbiter  in  political  affairs  and  the  leader  in  spirit- 
ual thought  for  all  western  Europe.  His  last  act  was  the 
establishment  of  peace  at  Metz,  where  the  nobles  and  citi- 
zens were  engaged  in  murderous  combat.  This  journey, 
undertaken  while  he  was  seriously  ill,  caused  his  death, 
August  20,  1153.  Comparatively  early  in  his  career  his 
health  had  been  undermined  by  the  austerities  which  he 
practised  and  by  the  fatiguing  life  of  action  which  he  led ; 
nothing  but  an  indomitable  spirit  had  enabled  him  to  ac- 
complish so  much  work. 

St.  Bernard  was  only  one  of  many  monks  who  influ- 
enced profoundly  the  spirit  of  the  age  in  which  they  lived. 
Gregory  VII,  the  great  opponent  of  Henry  IV, 
Urban  II,  who  started  the  crusading  move- 
ment, and  many  other  great  men,  illustrate  the  services  of 
the  monasteries  in  educating  the  leaders  of  human  thought. 
In  the  twelfth  century  monasticism  was  in  the  popular 
estimation  the  most  holy  mode  of  life ;  and  even  compara- 
tively obscure  individuals  were  revered  because  they  led 
lives  of  privation.  The  growth  of  the  fable  which  ascribed 
to  Peter  the  Hermit  the  credit  for  the  first  crusade  can  be 
traced  in  great  part  to  the  desire  to  glorify  the  monastic 
profession,  of  which  he  was  a  member.  For  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  centuries  formed  an  age  in  which  sharp  con- 
trasts were  common.  It  was  not  at  all  unusual  for  a  brutal 
warrior,  laden  with  sin,  to  flee  from  the  world  and  to  do 
penance  in  a  monastery  for  the  evil  life  he  had  led.  At  a 


132 


MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 


time  when  the  exactions  of  the  feudal  lords  were  almost 
unbearable,  the  charity  of  the  monks  shone  out  conspicu- 
ously. In  a  world  where  might  made  right,  and  the  nobles 
seemed  bent  wholly  upon  sating  their  passions,  the  example 
of  the  ascetic  monks  was  remarkably  attractive. 

The  reverence  of  the  people  caused  them  to  make  gifts 
to  the  monasteries,  and  the  more  strict  and  holy  the  life  in 
any  order  was,  the  greater  the  wealth 
which  it  received.  This  wealth  and 
the  power  exercised  by  the  abbots 
attracted  ambitious  men  to  the  or- 
ders. Generally  the  privations  were 
gradually  lessened  and  the  duties 

Why  the  influ-  neglec*ed-  The  Cister- 
enceofthe  cians,  in  spite  of  their 
monks  declined,  gtrfct  rule,  became  enor- 
mously wealthy,  and  engaged  in 
secular  business  ;  in  the  thirteenth 
century  a  large  part  of  the  woolen 
trade  in  England  was  in  their  hands. 
As  their  property  increased  their  vir- 
tues became  less  conspicuous.  Fur- 
thermore, Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  in 
spite  of  his  wonderful  success,  was 

really  struggling  against  the  current  of  the  age.  The  crav- 
ing for  knowledge  and  the  development  of  the  human  rea- 
son against  which  he  strove  were  becoming  more  and  more 
dominant.  The  increasing  wealth  of  Europe  and  the  ab- 
sorption of  interest  in  temporal  affairs  were  to  render  many 
of  his  other  ideals  obsolete.  But  the  monastic  spirit,  which 
he  inculcated,  has  always  found  disciples,  and  the  monks  of 
his  age  have  always  received  their  due  meed  of  admiration 
and  reverence. 

The  spirit  of  asceticism  and  reform  was  not  confined 
wholly  to  the  monks,  who  lived  apart  from  the  world.  It 
was  felt  to  be  quite  as  important  that  the  secular  clergy 


LETTER-CARRIER  . 


THE  MONASTIC  ORDERS  133 

who  guided  the  people  should  be  raised  to  a  higher  stand- 
ard. A  beginning  was  made  with  the  cathedral  and  col- 
legiate chapters.  A  cathedral  chapter  was  composed  of 
the  clergy  who  were  attached  to  the  cathedral  of  a  bishop. 
A  collegiate  chapter  was  composed  of  the  clergy  in  towns 
which  had  no  bishop.  Many  chapters  had  acquired  great 
possessions,  which  were  divided  into  separate  portions 
called  prebends,  and  assigned  to  the  members  to  supply 
their  needs.  Following  the  custom  of  the  age,  many  of 
the  holders  of  these  prebends  were  living  as  feudal  lords. 
The  reformers  desired  to  recall  them  from  their  secular 
pursuits  and  to  make  them  live  in  common  under  a  rule. 
Th  c  n  n  ^  ^rs^  ^nere  was  great  resistance,  as  the  preb- 
Begtilar :  the  endaries,  or  holders  of  the  prebends,  were 
Chapters,  unwilling  to  resign  their  wealth  and  power ; 

but  in  the  course  of  time  many  chapters  adopted  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine,1  and  came  to  be  known  as  Canons  Kegu- 
lar,  or  Augustinian  Canons,  or  Austin  Canons.  This  rule 
commanded  the  observance  of  many  monastic  customs, 
and  also  the  care  of  souls — that  is,  the  canons  were  to  be 
priests  and  were  to  officiate  in  the  churches. 

Not  content  with  the  slow  progress  in  the  chapters,  and 
feeling  the  need  of  more  men  to  guide  and  serve  the  people, 
Norbert  and  others  founded  orders  of  canons. 
The  most  noted  was  the  Premonstratensian, 
established  at  Premontre,2  about  1121,  by  Nor- 
bert.  Its  members,  who  were  also  known  as  Austin  Canons, 
lived  under  a  rule  of  great  strictness,  were  compelled  to 
take  the  monastic  vows  and  to  perform  manual  labor,  and, 
in  addition,  to  undertake  pastoral  cares.  Separate  mon- 
asteries for  women  were  established.  The  order  met  with 
great  favor,  and  Premonstratensian  abbeys  rose  rapidly  in 

1  The  rule  which  was  believed  to  have  been  framed  by  St.  Augustine, 
bishop  of  Hippo,  who  died  in  430. 
8  Not  far  from  Laon. 
10 


134  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

the  different  countries;  this  order  was  foremost  in  mis- 
sionary work  among  the  Slavs  beyond  the  river  Elbe.  Most 
of  the  orders  founded  later  were  patterned  after  the  Canons 
Regular,  in  combining  the  monastic  life  with  the  pastoral 
care.  This  fitted  them  particularly  for  their  usefulness, 
and  also  led  to  a  decline  in  the  importance  of  the  older 
orders  which  did  not  undertake  the  care  of  souls. 

REFERENCES 

Tout :  Empire  and  Papacy,  chap.  ix.  Storrs :  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux  (New  York,  1893),  Lecture  8.  Milman:  Latin  Christianity, 
vol.  iv  (London,  1867),  pp.  301-313.  Jessopp:  Coming  of  the  Friars 
(New  York,  1892),  chap.  iii. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
Life  of  the  Nobles  (Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries> 

SUMMARY. — The  castles  were  the  homes  of  the  noble  classes,  and 
were  built  in  the  strongest  possible  manner,  especially  to  serve  as  a 
refuge  in  case  of  attack.  In  order  to  alleviate  the  misery  and  blood- 
shed caused  by  the  constant  wars,  the  Church  attempted  to  establish 
the  Peace  of  God  and  the  Truce  of  God,  but  with  very  small  results. 
The  education  of  the  noble  youths  and  maidens  was  intended  to  pre- 
pare them  to  be  lords  and  mistresses  of  castles.  The  gradual  refine- 
ment of  manners  and  the  influence  of  the  Church  led  to  the  ceremony 
of  knighthood  and  the  ideals  of  chivalry.  The  amusements,  too,  be- 
came somewhat  less  coarse  ;  minstrelsy  and  tournaments  threw  a  ficti- 
tious glamour  over  the  life  of  the  nobles.  The  changed  ideals  of  the 
age  and  the  increasing  wealth  of  the  other  classes  caused  a  decline  in 
the  importance  of  the  nobility. 

DURING  the  invasions  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
many  castles  were  built  for  the  protection  of  the  people. 
These  consisted  usually  of  a  wooden  tower,  sev- 
era^  s*or^es  *n  height,  surrounded  by  rude  walls 
of  wood  or  stone,  and  ditches.  These  became 
the  homes  of  the  feudal  lords,  and  the  centers  from  which 
they  ruled  their  fiefs.  But  they  were  exposed  to  constant 
danger  from  fire — especially  in  times  of  war.  The  suzerain 
who  wished  to  conquer  rebellious  vassals  burned  their  cas- 
tles ;  William  the  Conqueror  excelled  in  this  mode  of  fight- 
ing. As  the  towers  were  of  wood,  they  were  rebuilt  quickly, 
and  often  reburned  as  quickly.  Consequently  the  nobles 
began  to  use  stone  in  place  of  wood,  and  gradually  the 
massive  stone  structures  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies were  evolved. 

135 


SECOND  STORY 


THIRD   STORY 

'(THERE  ARE  ONLY  THREE  STORIES  IN  THIS  CASTLE) 


FIRST  STORY 


BLOCK    PLAN 

APPROXIMATE 


0 10  20  80  40  BO 

SCALE  OF  FEET 

PLAN  OF  CASTLETON  CASTLE. 


LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES  137 

In  attacking  a  castle,  the  besieger  relied  chiefly  upon 
siege-engines,  or  upon  starving  out  the  garrison.  In  build- 
ing a  castle  these  two  elements  of  danger  de- 
Sitnations  for  termined  its  situation  and  method  of  construc- 
tion. Siege-engines  could  be  used  to  best  ad- 
vantage only  upon  level,  firm  ground.  Consequently  there 
were  three  favorite  sites  for  castles—  upon  a  cliff,  difficult 
of  approach,  as  the  Wartburg  ;  *  upon  an  island,  as  Chillon  ; 
or  in  the  center  of  a  swamp,  where  the  surrounding  ground 
was  too  soft  for  the  heavy  engines.  If  it  was  not  possible 
to  secure  such  natural  advantages  the  castle  was  surrounded 
by  a  moat,  sometimes  containing  water,  which  would  have 
to  be  filled  up  before  the  engines  could  approach  the  pro- 
tecting walls. 

Frequently  there  were  two  or  more  walls,  each  one 
formed  by  building  two  parallel  ramparts  of  stone  a  short 

distance  apart,  and  filling  in  the  space  between 
ndgate, 


wall  more  elastic  and  better  able  to  withstand  the  blows 
from  a  battering-ram.  In  the  center  of  one  side  there  was 
a  single  gate.  The  approach  was  usually  steep,  and  wide 
enough  for  only  one  man.  Before  the  gate  there  was  a 
movable  bridge  across  the  moat,  which  was  made  especially 
deep  at  this  point  ;  in  the  thirteenth  century  drawbridges 
came  into  use.  The  gate  itself  was  flanked  by  two  towers 
for  the  purpose  of  defense,  as  this  was  the  most  vulnerable 
point  of  the  castle.  At  the  entrance  there  was  a  portcullis, 
usually  of  massive  timbers  or  of  iron,  which  could  be  raised 
or  lowered.  Sometimes  there  was  a  second  portcullis  at  the 
other  end  of  the  entrance,  so  that  a  storming  party  might 
be  delayed  and  exposed  to  the  cross-fire  of  the  defenders 
within  the  towers.  Other  towers  were  built  at  intervals, 
projecting  from  the  wall,  and  a  bow-shot  apart,  so  as  to 
protect  the  intervening  portions. 

1  Near  Eisenach,  in  Germany.     This  was  Luther's  home  while  he 
was  translating  part  of  the  Bible. 


138 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Within  the  enclosure  there  were  frequently  other  walls 
separating  it  into  an  outer  and  one  or  more  inner  portions, 
so  as  to  make  it  difficult  for  an  enemy  to  reach 
the  actual  stronghold.  The  various  towers  and 
other  buildings  were  utilized  for  lodging  and  storage.  But 
the  most  important  parts  of  a  large  castle  were  the  donjon 
and  keep.1  The  former  was  the  ordinary  dwelling-place  of 
the  knight  and  his  fam- 
ily; the  latter  formed 
a  place  of  refuge  if  the 
rest  of  the  castle  should 
be  captured.  The  keep 
had  no  windows  or  doors 
on  the  first  floor,  and 
was  entered  by  a  mov- 
able ladder.  In  the  low- 
er story  the  treasures 
were  stored  and  danger- 
ous prisoners  were  con- 
fined. Within  the  en- 
closure there  was  always 
either  a  spring,  or  wells, 
or  at  least  a  cistern  for 
catching  rain-water,  so  LADIES,  CosTUMES. 

that  the  garrison  need 

not  suffer  from  thirst.  If  the  enclosure  was  sufficiently 
large,  it  contained  a  garden  for  vegetables  and  herbs,  a 
poultry  yard,  and  buildings  for  other  animals.  The  knights 
endeavored  to  store  up  enough  food  to  guard  against  star- 


1  Because  of  an  error  made  long  ago,  the  two  chief  towers  are  con- 
fused in  ordinary  language,  and  donjon  and  keep  are  used  interchange- 
ably. Consequently  we  have  formed  a  false  impression  of  a  castle.  In 
this  book  donjon  is  used  for  the  chief  dwelling-place,  as  it  is  used  by 
German  and  French  historians.  Keep  is  used  for  the  strong  tower, 
which  is  called  by  the  Germans  Hauptthurm,  by  the  French  grande 
tour  or  maitre  tour. 


LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES  139 

vation  when  besieged.  The  castle  usually  contained  a 
chapel.  Sometimes  underground  passages  were  built  by 
which  secret  communication  could  be  maintained  with 
the  country  outside  and  the  garrison  might  escape  in 
time  of  need ;  in  some  cases,  as  at  Coucy,  these  were  of 
great  length. 

The  owner  of  the  castle  was  employed  principally  in   \ 
managing  his  estate,  in  ruling  his  subjects,  in  hunting,  and      \ 
in  fighting.     The  direction  and  government  of  an  exten- 
sive fief  required  a  large  amount  of  time.     In  addition  to 
the  duties  which  now  rest  upon  the  holder  of  a  similar 
property,  the  lord  then   had  to   administer  justice,  hold  | 
court,  and  police  his  domain.     Hunting  was  a  constant ' 

necessity,  as  this  was  one  of  the  main  sources 
Occupations  of  of  SUppiy  for  the  table.  Fighting,  above  all 
else,  was  the  occupation  of  the  knight  in  the 
•tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  The  kings  were  usually 
engaged  in  struggles  against  rebellious  barons;  private 
wars  between  nobles  were  incessant.  The  countries,  espe- 
cially France,  were  devastated  by  these  wars,  and  the  com- 
mon people  were  reduced  to  the  greatest  extremities  ;  can- 
nibalism was  not  infrequent  in  France  about  the  year  1000. 

The  Church,  as  usual,  endeavored  to  institute  a  reform, 
and  from  989  on,  various  councils  in  France  decreed  that 

The  Peace  of  &u^  one  w^°  use(^  v^°^ence  toward  members  of 
God  and  the  the  clergy,  women,  peasants,  or  merchants, 
Truce  of  God,  should  be  excommunicated.  This  was  called 
the  Peace  of  God,  but  as  its  decrees  were  not  heeded,  the 
Church  formed  leagues  of  peace,  which  included  individu- 
als of  all  classes  sworn  to  aid  in  maintaining  the  peace. 
In  1027,  and  later,  the  Church  added  the  Truce  of  God— 
i.  e.,  that  during  certain  days  and  seasons  there  should  be 
no  fighting  at  all.  At  first  the  truce  included  only  Sun- 
days ;  later,  other  days  in  each  week,  church  festivals  and 
holy  seasons,  like  Lent,  were  added,  until  only  about  eighty 
days  in  each  year  remained  on  which  private  warfare  was 


140 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


allowed.     Thus  the  Peace  of  God  was  intended  to  protect 
certain  classes  at  all  times,  the  Truce  to  protect  all  classes 
at  certain  times.     The  Church  was  not  able  to  enforce 
either  because  of  the  lawlessness  of 
the  nobles. 

The  wife  of  a  noble  had  many  du- 
ties to  perform,  for  which  she  was  care- 
fully trained  from  her 
SnSiJr8  early  childhood.  First  of 
all  she  must  know  how  to 
sew  and  to  spin  flax  and  silk,  as  she 
made  her  own  clothes  and  to  a  great 
extent  the  clothes  of  her  husband. 
The  coarser  work,  spinning  of  wool 
and  weaving,  was  left  generally  to 
the  servants,  but  this  also  was  un- 
der her  direction.  Embroidering  the 
so-called  "  tapestries  "  was  a  favorite 
occupation,  and  the  completed  work 
decorated  the  halls  of  the  castles  on 
festive  occasions,  graced  the  tourna- 
ments, or  adorned  the  churches.  On  the  tapestries  were 
wrought  wonderful  representations  of  animals  and  men, 
battle  scenes,  or  the  adventures  of  legendary  heroes.  The 
Bayeux  tapestry,  which  depicts  the  conquest  of  England,  is 
the  best-known  example.  In  addition,  a  lady  was  expected 
to  have  some  knowledge  of  medicine  and  nursing,  in  order 
that  she  might  care  for  the  sick  in  the  castle.  Finally, 
she  had  the  general  management  of  the  whole  household, 
and  during  her  husband's  absence  must  be  ready  to  take 
his  place  ;  not  infrequently  a  lady  was  compelled  to  defend 
the  castle. 

As  the  daughter  was  trained  for  her  later  duties,  so  too 
the  son  was  carefully  educated,  in  order  that  he  might  be- 
come a  valiant  knight.  From  his  earliest  boyhood  he 
exercised  in  running,  climbing,  jumping,  riding,  swim- 


STATUE  REPRESENTING 
LADY. 


LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES  141 

ming,  shooting  with  a  bow,  and  hurling  a  spear.  At  about 
twelve  years  of  age  his  real  education  began.  It  was  the 
custom  that  sons  of  nobles  should  be  sent  to  the  castle  of 
the  overkrd  to  receive  this  education.  There 
^eJ  served  as  pages  or  squires,  running  er- 
rands, serving  at  table,  cleaning  the  weapons 
and  armor,  and  attending  the  lords  at  tournaments  or  in 
battle.  They  were  taught  to  use  different  weapons,  and 
were  expected  to  show  their  skill  in  horsemanship  or  in 
fighting.  In  addition,  they  were  encouraged  to  make  verses, 
and  sing  them  to  their  own  accompaniment,  as  this  became 
the  fashion  toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century. 

When  the  boy  became  of  age  he  might  be  made  a 
knight  if  he  seemed  worthy  of  the  honor.  For  not  even 
pv  i  ,  a  king's  son  could  claim  knighthood  as  a  right, 

ferring  knight-  and  in  theory  it  was  conferred  only  as  a  reward 
hood,  Of  merit.  It  grew  out  of  the  old  German  cus- 

tom of  giving  a  youth  his  arms  in  the  public  assembly,  a 
symbol  of  the  fact  that  he  had  become  a  man  and  a  member 
of  the  tribe.  The  Church  had  recognized  this  custom,  and 
endeavored  to  use  it  as  a  means  of  reforming  the  feudal 
nobles.  To  the  old  German  usages  it  had  added  Christian 
rites  intended  to  sanctify  the  profession  of  knighthood  or 
chivalry,  and  to  impose  some  duties  upon  each  knight. 
It  taught  that  there  was  a  "  certain  resemblance  "  between 
knighthood  and  priesthood,  as  both  the  knight  and  the 
priest  had  taken  vows  to  aid  the  Church  in  its  work. 

The  three  essentials  in  the   early  ceremony  were  the 
girding  on  of  the  sword,  the  symbol  of  his  new  honor,  by 
some  knight ;  the  accolade,  or  blow  on  the  neck,  the  sym- 
bol of  freedom  ;  and  an  exhibition  of  ability 
to  use  the  weapons.     In  time  the  ceremony 
became  much  more  complicated,  and  many  religious,  sym- 
bolical rites  were  added.     The  arms  of  the  future  knight 
were  blessed  and  placed  upon  the  altar  in  some  church ; 
the  candidate  took  a  bath,  the  symbol  of  purity ;  "  watched 


142 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


his  arms  "  during  a  night  spent  on  his  knees  in  prayer ; 
attended  mass ;  took  an  oath  to  fulfil  all  the  duties  of  chiv- 
alry ;  received  his  sword  and 
the  accolade  from  a  knight; 
was  clad  in  armor  and  with 
the  golden  spurs  by  the  lords 
and  ladies  present;  vaulted 
on  horseback,  and  with  his 
lance  in  rest  charged  against 
the  quintaine,  or  stuffed  mani- 
kin, to  show  his  skill.  Later, 
the  exercises  became  even 
more  elaborate  and  more  fully 
religious.  Often  on  the  field 
of  battle  all  formality  was  dis- 
pensed with,  and  the  usages 
were  seldom  as  elaborate  in 
Germany  or  England  as  in 
France,  the  especial  home  of 
chivalry. 

Knighthood   was    usually 

conferred  by  the  suzerain,  and  this  fact  determined  to  a 
great  extent  the  duties  of  a  knight,  which  were 
practically  the  same  as  those  of  a  vassal,  but 
more  idealized.  The  knight  ought  to  be  sans 
reproclie,  brave,  generous,  and  faithful ;  he  ought  to  pro- 
tect the  weak,  to  observe  his  oath  faithfully,  and  to  keep 
his  honor  spotless. 

Chivalry  introduced  high  ideals,  but  was 

The  reality,  .  ' 

powerless  to  enforce  them  among  the  turbu- 
lent nobles  of  the  age.  Deeds  of  cruelty  and  perfidy  were 
common  even  on  the  part  of  the  best  men ;  it  is  only  in 
the  later  centuries  that  a  Bayard  *  arises.  But  the  ideals 


KNIGHT,  THIBTEENTH  CENTUEY 


The  duties  of  a 
knight, 


1  Bayard  (1476-1523)  was  so  distinguished  by  his  valor,  piety,  and 
magnanimity  that  he  was  called  le  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche. 


LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES 


143 


of  chivalry  inculcated  by  the  Church  and  sung  by  the 
troubadours 1  were  effective  in  improving  the  manners  and 
in  inciting  to  a  more  perfect  courtesy. 

In  the  twelfth  century  it  became  fashionable  to  play 

games  during  leisure  hours.     Chess,  introduced  from  the 

Mohammedans,    was    the    greatest    favorite; 

Amusements  in  cneck;ers  backgammon,  and  dice  -  throwing 
the  castles, 

were  also  popular.  Dancing  was  an  ever-wel- 
come diversion.  In  the  large  castles  dwarfs  and  jesters,  or 
"  court  fools,"  were  kept  for  the  amusement  of  the  nobles  ; 
the  fools  were  allowed,  on  account  of  their  folly,  an  un- 


GROUP  OF  CHESSMEN,  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY. 

limited  license  in  speech,  and  often  belied  their  reputation 
by  the  keenness  of  their  wits,  which  spared  no  one.  They 
were  generally  adorned  with  a  cap  and  bells,  and  fre- 
quently, like  the  modern  clown,  were  made  ridiculous  in 
appearance  by  some  device,  such  as  shaving  half  the  head, 
half  the  beard,  and  half  the  mustache.  Strolling  players, 
who  performed  acrobatic  feats,  were  sometimes  admitted 
to  the  banquet  hall  to  exhibit  their  skill. 


1  Poets  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  who  lived  in  south- 
ern France  and  northern  Italy  and  sang  the  praises  of  chivalry. 


144  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

The  jongleurs  traveled  about  the  country  from  castle  to 
castle,  reciting  the  poems  of  the  troubadours.  With  mu- 
sical instruments  on  their  backs  they  would 
enter  a  castle,  salute  the  lord  with  some  poet- 
ical address,  and  then  begin :  "  My  lords,  be  silent  if  you 
wish  to  hear  a  song  such  as  no  other  jongleur  can  sing." 
Then  would  follow  some  long-drawn-out  narrative  in  verse, 
of  which  the  theme  might  be  the  death  of  Eoland,  the  love 
of  Tristan  and  Isolde,  the  prowess  of  the  Knights  of  the 
Bound  Table,  the  capture  of  Troy,  or  the  deeds  of  the  cru- 
saders. In  these  stories  one  combat  or  siege  follows  an- 
other ;  banquets  are  described  with  a  detail  which  demands 
the  mention  of  each  individual  dish ;  customs  and  usages 
are  depicted  with  a  photographic  minuteness  which  makes 
it  possible  to  reproduce  accurately  many  features  of  the  life 
in  a  feudal  castle.  Occasionally  in  the  enormous  mass  of 
poetry  written  by  the  troubadours  there  is  a  real  gem,  like 
Aucassin  and  Nicolette.  Many  of  their  tales  have  been 
translated  from  one  language  to  another,  and  have  been 
retold  until  they  have  become  a  part  of  the  literature  of 
modern  nations.  Who  has  not  read  of  Eoland  and  Oliver, 
King  Arthur  and  his  knights,  or  Parsifal  ? 

In  the  intervals  of  peace,  the  nobles  engaged  in  tourna- 
ments, or  mimic  warfare,  as  their  favorite  pastime.  At  first 
these  were  simple  fights  in  the  open  fields  be- 
tween two  companies  of  knights.  In  the  thir- 
teenth century  they  became  elaborate  entertainments,  man- 
aged by  very  strict  rules.  The  Church  forbade  them  in 
vain,  for  they  were  universally  popular ;  the  kings  of  France 
were  not  any  more  successful  in  repressing  them.  In  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  they  reached  their  great- 
est splendor ;  and  any  especial  occasion,  such  as  the  mar- 
riage of  a  great  lord,  was  considered  a  sufficient  excuse  for 
a  tournament,  which  would  attract  knights  and  adventurers 
from  all  directions.  Technically,  tournaments  were  battles 
in  which  whole  bands  engaged ;  jousts  were  combats  be- 


146  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

tween  two  knights.  One  of  the  reasons  for  their  popularity 
was  that  they  afforded  a  great  opportunity  for  making 
money.  Each  participant,  when  conquered,  forfeited  his 
horse  and  arms  to  his  conqueror,  and  must  redeem  his  own 
body  from  captivity.  Consequently  the  combatants  were 
seldom  killed  in  tournaments,  and  the  same  was  true  of 
real  warfare.  The  armor  protected  a  knight  from  many 
dangers ;  his  value  in  money  as  a  prisoner,  from  even  more. 
The  great  carnage  on  the  fields  of  battle  was  among  the 
squires  and  foot-soldiers  ;  in  tournaments  there  was  less 
danger  to  the  head  than  to  the  purse.  An  ordinance  of 
the  king  of  France,  in  1314,  forbade  tournaments  and  jousts 
"  because  of  the  great  destruction  and  mortality  of  horses 
and  sometimes  of  persons."  On  the  other  hand,  the  love 
of  participating  in  tournaments  frequently  ruined  a  knight's 
fortune. 

The  nobles  were  generally  in  financial  straits,  because 
generosity  in  giving  and  lavish  waste  in  entertaining  were 
regarded  as  knightly  virtues.  Every  possible 
occasion  was  seized  upon  for  an  entertainment ; 
and  none  was  given  without  providing  costly  banquets  for 
all  who  chose  to  come,  and  valuable  presents  for  all  guests. 
Prodigality  was  considered  a  mark  of  nobility.  At  the  cry 
of  "  Largesse  " l  the  listeners  showered  money,  ornaments, 
and  garments  upon  the  minstrels.  Every  messenger  must 
be  rewarded  with  a  gift ;  friends,  vassals,  and  all  who  came 
must  have  occasion  to  praise  the  liberality  of  the  knight. 
This  wastefulness  kept  even  the  kings  and  great  barons  in 
constant  financial  difficulties ;  but  the  knight  who  refrained 
from  such  a  course  was  despised  as  a  niggard. 

Amid  all  this  extravagance  there  was  a  great  lack  of 
many  things  now  considered  necessities.  The  inner  walls 
were  hung  with  rich  tapestries  or  "  Saracen  carpets,"  made 
at  Paris,  which  were  especially  prized  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 

1  A  gift — the  cry  used  by  minstrels  seeking  reward  for  their  services. 


LIFE  OF  THE  NOBLES  147 

ury;  but  the  rooms  could  not  be  kept  warm  in  winter. 
3 very  poet  sings  the  joys  of  spring  when  the  earth  gets 
warm  again.  At  the  banquets  the  tables 
£roane(^  under  the  rich  viands  which  were 
served  in  almost  endless  profusion;  but  the 
mights  and  ladies  ate  with  their  fingers.1  The  same  con- 
trast holds  true  in  almost  every  feature  of  the  life  of  the 
lobles. 

Their   prodigality    impoverished   them.      The   increas- 
ng    power    of   the    kings,   the    growing    wealth   and   in- 
fluence of  the  merchants,  the  changed  condi- 
Decayofthis      tiong  of  life  in  general,  after  the  thirteenth 
century,  caused  the  nobles  on  the  Continent 
to  lose  much  of  their  power.     Many  sought  fortunes  by  be- 
soming condottieri,  or  mercenary  captains,  in  Italy  or  where- 
Bver  war  was  being  waged.     Absorbed  in  the  need  of  gain- 
ing money  to  maintain  their  rank,  their  ideals  changed,  and 
the  life  which  has  been  described  passed  away.     The  use 
of  gunpowder  in  battle  finally  rendered  the  knights  and 
their  castles  equally  impotent. 

REFERENCES 

Castles,  see  article  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  9th  edition.  Edu- 
cation of  Knight:  Cornish,  Chivalry  (London,  1901),  pp.  58-67. 
Tournaments:  Cornish,  pp.  101-106.  Chivalry:  Milman,  Latin 
Christianity,  vol.  iv,  pp.  204-211 ;  Adams,  Civilization,  pp.  276, 
277.  Truce  of  God :  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  2.  Cul- 
ture of  the  Middle  Ages:  Robinson,  chap.  xix.  Aucassin  and  Nico- 
lette  is  published  by  Mosher  (Portland,  Me.). 

1  fn  1297  the  king  of  England  owned  only  one  fork.  Forks  came 
into  common  use  only  in  the  sixteenth  century. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
Life  of  the  People  (Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries) 

SUMMARY. — The  common  people  were  expected  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury to  do  all  the  work  and  to  support  the  other  classes.  j/foLost  of  them 
were  agricultural  laborers,  living  in  villages  and  subject  to  great  hard- 
ships. Gradually  their  lot  improved,  although  not  with  equal  rapidity 
in  all  countries.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  and  cities  were  under 
the  same  restraints  as  the  other  peasants.  But  as  they  lived  by  handi- 
crafts and  trading,  they  became  wealthy  more  rapidly  than  the  agricul- 
tural laborers.  They  also  formed  gilds,  and  thus,  as  corporate  bodies, 
secured  rights  and  freedom.  - 

. 

IK  the  eleventh  century  the  population  of  Europe  was 
divided  by  contemporaries  into  three  classes  :  those  who 
did  the  praying,  the  clergy ;  those  who  did  the 
fighting'  tbe  nobles;  and  those  who  did  the 
work,  the  common  people.  The  last  class,  far 
more  numerous  than  the  other  two  combined,  had  no  social 
or  political  importance,  and  was  despised.  Its  duty  was  to 
furnish  the  money,  food,  and  clothing  for  the  nobility  and 
clergy.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  however, 
its  members  began  to  obtain  rights  and  to  have  some  in- 
fluence. Their  progress  may  be  studied  to  best  advantage 
in  France,  where  the  advance  was  more  rapid  than  in  Ger- 
many or  England,  but  not  as  rapid  as  in  some  parts  of  Italy 
or  Spain.  From  the  eleventh  century  until  the  fourteenth 
the  population  seems  to  have  been  increasing  rapidly  in  all 
western  Europe,  but  it  is  not  possible  to  give  accurate  fig- 
ures, as  no  census  was  taken. 

Most  of  the  people  were  agricultural  laborers.     They 
148 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  149 

were  divided  into  various  classes  in  each  country,  according 
to  the  degree  of  subjection  in  which  they  wer^  held.  The 
slaves  were  mere  property  with  no  rights ;  they 
The  agricultu-  were  few  in  number  and  almost  always  f  oreign- 
ral  laborers,  ^^  Above  them  came  the  serfs,  who  held 
small  farms,  for  which  they  were  obliged  to  perform  cer- 
tain services.  They  were  forbidden  by  law  to  leave  their 
land,  and  were  bought  and  sold  as  a  part  of  the  estate  on 
which  they  lived.  Some  serfs,  especially  those  belonging 
to  the  Church,  were  in  a  better  position  than  others ;  but 
all  were  the  property  of  their  lord,  who  might  be  the  king, 
a  bishop,  an  abbot,  or  other  member  of  the  nobility.  Above 
the  serfs  were  the  so-called  "  freemen."  The  name  is  mis- 
leading, as  they  too  were  obliged  to  perform  definite  serv- 
ices for  their  lord ;  but  these  were  not  so  heavy  as  those  de- 
manded of  the  lower  class.  Between  the  serfs  and  the  free- 
men there  were  many  gradations  which  were  very  impor- 
tant to  the  medieval  peasants.  Some  had  escaped  from 
the  obligations  of  serfdom  without  attaining  the  status  of 
freemen ;  these  were  designated  in  the  documents  by  tech- 
nical terms  which  it  is  impossible  to  make  clear.  The  same 
estate  had  frequently  several  classes  of  tenants,  carefully 
distinguished  because  they  owed  different  kinds  of  services 
and  payments. 

The  villages  in  which  they  lived  consisted  ordinarily  of 
a  single  street  with  houses  close  together  on  each  side.     A 

little  apart  from  the  village  stood  the  castle 
The  villages,  .  ^  .  ,  '  ,  ,  . 

or  manor-house  in  which  the  lord  or  his  repre- 
sentative lived  and  the  domain  land,  or  portion  of  the 
manor  which  the  lord  retained  for  his  own  cultivation  to 
supply  his  family  with  food.  There  was  usually  a  church 
with  a  cemetery  at  the  back  and  an  open  space  in  front. 
Such  villages  can  still  be  seen  in  many  parts  of  Germany, 
France,  and  Switzerland.  Around  the  houses  extended  the 
fields  which  the  peasants  cultivated,  and  near  by  were  the 
forests  in  which  the  lords  hunted,  as  a  large  part  of  the 
11 


KERPEN,  AN  OLD  GERMAN  VILLAGE,  WITH  ITS  FARMING  LANDS. 

The  land  is  all  divided  into  small  strips,  each  inhabitant  of  the  village  having  a 
number  of  these  strips.  Those  heavily  shaded,  thirty-six  in  number,  belong  to  the 
largest  farmer  there.  P  is  the  old  village  mill.  Q  is  the  village  common,  used  for 
pasture.  R  is  the  ruin  of  the  medieval  castle.  The  other  letters  of  the  alphabet 
indicate  the  various  parts  of  the  village  lands  having  each  its  local  name.  The  collec- 
tion of  dark  spots  in  the  center  represent  the  houses  of  the  village. 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  151 

land  was  still  covered  with  woods.  The  houses  were  wretched 
hovels  with  only  a  single  room,  a  single  door,  and  no  win- 
dows or  chimney.  Frequently  the  domestic  animals  and 
poultry  were  given  the  freedom  of  the  house. 

The  land  which  any  laborer  held  was  not  all  in  one 
piece,  but  was  scattered  in  narrow  strips  among  similar  strips 
held  by  the  other  peasants.  Each  year  only 
two-thirds  was  cultivated ;  the  other  third  was 
allowed  to  lie  fallow.  This  was  necessary,  as  men  did  not 
know  how  to  enrich  the  soil,  and  consequently  it  was  soon 
exhausted.  Under  ordinary  conditions  the  yield  per  acre 
was  not  more  than  one-third  as  much  as  at  the  present  day. 
Wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  seem  to  have  been  the  crops 
most  commonly  cultivated.  Farm  animals  were  small. 
Pigs,  which  secured  their  own  living  by  ranging  in  the 
forests,  furnished  most  of  the  meat  consumed.  Bees  were 
kept  in  large  numbers,  as  the  expense  was  slight ;  more- 
over, wax  was  in  great  demand  for  candles  in  the  churches, 
and  honey  was  an  important  food.  There  was  very  little 
trade,  and  each  community  had  to  produce  almost  everything 
that  it  needed.  Grapes  were  raised  for  wine  in  parts  of 
France  where  it  is  not  profitable  to  grow  them  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  Each  village  had  to  cultivate  herbs  for  use  in  sick- 
ness, and  plants  from  which  dyes  could  be  made. 

In  return  for  their  land  the  peasants  had  to  make  pay- 
ments in  money  or  produce  and  to  perform  services.  These 
varied  according  to  the  freedom  of  each  class. 
The  freeman  usually  paid  fixed  amounts  at 
definite  times  and  worked  on  the  domain  land 
one  or  more  days  during  the  seasons  of  the  year  when 
labor  was  most  needed.  In  theory  the  serf  could  be  taxed 
as  heavily  and  made  to  work  as  much  as  the  lord  pleased ; 
but  in  practise  his  chief  obligations  were  fixed  by  the  cus- 
tom in  each  fief.  The  lord,  however,  might  at  any  time 
add  new  burdens  and  the  serfs  could  make  no  effective 
opposition.  Even  under  favorable  conditions  they  usually 


152  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

had  to  work  more  than  half  the  time  for  their  superiors, 
and  to  make  payments  of  various  kinds.  Whenever  any 
extraordinary  expense  was  incurred  they  were  compelled  to 
furnish  the  money. 

In  the  wars,  which  were  frequent,  the  peasants  suffered 
the  most  severely;  their  crops  were  destroyed  and  their 
villages  burned.  In  times  of  peace,  owing  to 
their  ignorance  of  agriculture,  the  crops  often 
failed  wholly  or  in  part.  Too  much  or  too 
little  rain  or  heat,  and  floods,  were  calamities  against  which 
it  was  impossible  to  guard.  In  a  period  of  seventy-three 
years  during  the  eleventh  century  there  were  forty-eight 
in  which  the  crops  in  France  were  deficient.  Whole  dis- 
tricts suffered  from  famine,  and  because  of  the  lack  of 
communication  between  different  parts  of  the  same  coun- 
try provisions  might  be  abundant  in  one  section  while  peo- 
ple were  starving  in  another.  Pestilence  followed  famine 
and  swept  over  the  different  countries  with  startling  fre- 
quency. But  no  matter  how  hard  the  lot  of  the  peasants 
was,  they  must  make  their  payments.  When  their  number 
was  reduced  by  famine  or  pestilence  those  who  were  left 
must  pay  more.  How  else  could  the  lords  live  ?  The  latter 
usually  had  no  consideration  for  the  peasants.  Even  if 
rabbits  ate  up  their  crops  no  serf  was  allowed  to  kill  one, 
because  all  game  belonged  to  the  lord. 

At  times  the  misery  of  the  serfs  became  so  great  that 
they  revolted  and  killed  their  lords.  This  resulted  almost 
always  in  their  speedy  defeat  and  punishment ; 
^or  a^  ^ne  fighting  class  would  make  com- 
mon cause  against  the  peasants.  More  fre- 
quently they  fled  into  the  woods  to  become  brigands,  or 
else  sought  new  homes ;  for,  in  spite  of  the  law,  the  serfs 
frequently  left  their  land.  The  fear  of  losing  his  tenants, 
whose  services  he  needed,  was  a  great  check  upon  the  lord 
and  prevented  him  from  imposing  as  many  burdens  as  he 
might  otherwise  have  done. 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  153 

The  more  enlightened  tried  to  attract  new  tenants  and 
to  keep  those  they  already  had  by  freeing  them  from  some 
of  the  most  burdensome  obligations,  especially 
ky  exchanging  for  a  fixed  payment  the  right  to 
demand  unlimited  services.  Lords  who  needed 
a  large  sum  of  money  for  a  crusade  or  for  some  other  un- 
usual  expense  sold  to  their  serfs  the  freedom  from  certain 
obligations.  This  custom  spread,  because  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent landholders  had  to  bid  against  each  other  for  laborers. 
Moreover,  emancipation  was  looked  upon  as  a  pious  act, 
and  many  lords,  especially  upon  their  death-beds,  freed  a 
larger  or  smaller  number.  Serfs  who  became  members  of 
the  clergy  became  free  at  the  same  time,  and  many  rose  to 
high  positions ;  there  are  instances  even  of  their  becoming 
popes.  By  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
worst  features  of  serfdom  had  disappeared  almost  every- 
where in  France,  and  in  many  parts  there  were  no  serfs  at 
all.  The  lot  of  the  peasants  continued  to  be  hard,  but 
gradually  they  all  became  freemen.  In  most  of  the  other 
countries  the  serfs,  sooner  or  later,  obtained  their  freedom, 
and  usually  from  the  same  general  causes  as  in  France. 
But  in  some  countries  their  burdens  were 
not  removed  altogether  until  the  period 
of  the  French  Ee volution  or  even  later. 
The  towns  as  well  as  the  villages 
belonged  to  the  nobles,  and  the  inhab- 
itants were  their  subjects. 

2uC         A  town  was  an  especially 
valuable  piece  of  property 
and  could  be  sold  or  given  away  at  the 
owner's  pleasure.     In  fact,  it  was  only        AEMS  OF  PARIS. 
a  larger  village  which  had  fortifications 
and  was  governed  by  special  laws.     A  city  was  technically 
the  residence  of  a  bishop  and  belonged  wholly  or  in  part 
to  the  fief  which  he  held.     Sometimes  a  city  or  town  was 
divided  between  two  or  more  lords,  each  one  owning  a  part. 


154:  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

The  ownership  was  determined  usually  by  the  way  in 
which  the  town  had  grown  up.     Some  towns  had  existed 

from  Roman  times.  Others  had  grown  up 
towns!  °ft  6  about  some  center,  a  castle  or  a  monastery, 

which  offered  protection  and  also  a  market  for 
goods.  For  the  growth  of  towns  was  due  wholly  to  com- 
merce and  manufacturing,  although  these  terms  sound 
grandiloquent  when  applied  to  the  petty  barter  and  home 
industries  of  the  early  middle  ages.  Sometimes  during 
the  invasions  or  private  wars  a  village  erected  fortifications 
and  by  favoring  circumstances  became  a  town.  In  such 
cases  its  rise  was  due  to  a  favorable  situation  for  com- 
merce, to  the  security  afforded  by  its  walls,  and  lastly  to 
the  privileges  granted  by  the  lord  who  wished  to  profit 
by  the  added  population.  In  other  cases  a  town  was  de- 
liberately founded  by  a  lord  in  some  part  of  his  fief  by  the 
offer  of  special  privileges  to  any  who  would  settle  there. 
Because  of  their  hardships  some  of  the  peasants  in  the 
middle  ages,  especially  in  France,  were  constantly  in  mo- 
tion, seeking  to  better  their  lot.  Consequently  new  settle- 
ments arose  rapidly ;  some  still  retain  the  name  of  Ville- 
neuve  (new  town)  or  Villefranche  (free  town).1 

Within  the  towns  and  cities  there  were  houses  every- 
where, even  on  the  walls.    The  streets  were  narrow,  crooked, 

and  unpaved.  The  buildings  were  crowded 
llfe'  closely  together,  and  each  story  projected  some- 
what beyond  the  one  below,  so  that  the  upper  stories  al- 
most met  and  overhung  the  streets.  Within,  the  homes  of 
the  richer  merchants  vied  in  wealth  and  luxury  with  the 
castles  of  the  nobles.  At  the  back  there  were  gardens  filled 
with  flowers,  and  the  best  rooms  opened  upon  these  gardens. 
Each  shopkeeper  hung  out  his  sign  with  some  device  rep- 
resenting his  trade,  for  few  could  read.  At  dawn  the  shut- 
ters were  taken  down,  and  the  streets  were  filled  with  peo- 

1  Cf.  Villafranca,  Neustadt,  Freiburg,  etc. 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE 


155 


pie.  Venders  of  food  and  dealers  in  miscellaneous  articles 
went  about  crying  their  wares.  Fights  between  the  ap 
prentices  of  the  different  trades  were  frequent.  Each  in- 
dustry had  its  own  quar- 
ter, from  which  the  work- 
men would  sally  forth  to 
attack  those  of  another 
quarter,  or  in  which  they 
would  in  turn  barricade 
themselves.  All  day  long 
the  streets  were  the 
scenes  of  active  life  and 
varied  tumult.  At  sun- 
set the  shops  were  closed, 
a  little  later  the  ange- 
lus1  rang,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  curfew.2 
Soon  after  the  last  lights 

in  the  houses  were  extinguished,  the  watchman  fastened 
the  chains  at  the  ends  of  each  street,  and  the  town  slept. 

Festivals  were  many,  and  were  celebrated  with  a  luxury 
which  often  surpassed  the  ostentation  of  the  tournaments, 
for  the  French  towns  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  were  very  wealthy.  The  cru- 
sades had  given  a  great  impetus  to  trade  and  had  put  into 
active  circulation  the  gold  and  silver  which  had  been 
hoarded  in  the  preceding  centuries.  The  crusaders  in  the 
Holy  Land  needed  supplies  and  equipments  from  the  West. 
Large  vessels,  built  to  carry  men  and  supplies  to  Syria, 
brought  back  the  rich  commodities  of  the  East.  The  men 
who  returned  had  acquired  new  tastes,  and  desired  luxu- 


SCENE   IN   A   SHOP. 


Commerce, 


1  A  bell  rung  as  a  signal  for  the  saying  of  the  prayers  which  were 
known  from  the  opening  word  as  the  "  Angelus." 

2  The  bell  rung,  usually  at  nightfall,  as  a  signal  to  cover  the  fires 
(couvre-feu)  and  retire  for  the  night. 


156  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

ries  with  which  they  had  become  acquainted  in  Syria.  The 
Mediterranean  ports  were  centers  of  active  trade  between 
the  Orient  and  Occident.  From  these  ports  the  goods  were 
carried,  mainly  on  the  rivers,  all  over  western  Europe.  The 
towns  along  the  Ehone  and  the  Ehine  and  on  the  seacoast 
in  Flanders  profited  especially  from  this  trade. 

Fairs  were  established  under  the  protection  of  the  kings, 
nobles,  or  clergy.  These  were  centers  for  exchanging  the 
products  of  diiferent  parts  of  the  same  country 
or  of  different  countries.  They  were  held  for 
a  few  days  at  a  fixed  time  each  year,  under  very  strict  regu- 
lations. The  Lendit,  near  Paris,  was  one  of  the  oldest  and 
best  known ;  it  opened  on  the  eleventh  of  June,  and  lasted 
a  fortnight ;  each  town  in  France  had  a  place  assigned  to 
it  on  the  grounds,  where  the  merchants  could  display  their 
wares.  At  the  fairs  of  Champagne  not  only  French  mer- 
chants but  also  Italian  and  Flemish  carried  on  a  brisk  busi- 
ness. In  England  there  were,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
fifty  or  more  places  at  which  important  fairs  were  held ; 
the  most  noted  were  Winchester,  Stourbridge,  St.  Ives,  and 
Boston. 

In  order  to  carry  on  this  active  trade  the  merchants  re- 
quired good  roads,  on  which  they  could  travel  unmolested 
and  in  safety.     In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  cen- 

iif Movements  turies  tne  r(>ads  were  verJ  ^ad»  tne  bridges 
were  few,  and  highwaymen  were  many.  At 
the  frontier  of  each  fief  it  was  necessary  to  pay  for  the  priv- 
ilege of  entering  or  leaving.  On  the  rivers  tolls  were  heavy 
and  robberies  frequent.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth 
century  conditions  improved.  The  lords  found  it  to  their 
advantage  to  make  better  highways,  to  build  bridges,  and 
to  police  the  routes,  since  for  these  services  they  could  de- 
mand heavy  payment  from  the  merchants.  These  charges 
also  became  fixed,  and  were  no  longer  exacted  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  lord.  Thus  traveling  became  comparatively  safe 
and  easy. 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  157 

The  merchants  were  able  to  accomplish  these  reforms, 
and  also  to  gain  influence  in  other  matters,  by  forming  as-v 
sociations.     The  individual  was  weak,  but  a  \ 
large  number  united  made  a  body  which  even    ) 
the  feudal  lord  found  formidable.     The  advantages  of  such  -^ 
associations  were  perceived  very  early,  and  in  each  town 
the  merchants  joined  in  a  gild  to  regulate  and  monopo- 
lize trade  and  to  protect  their  common  interests.     These 
"merchant   gilds"  were   able    to   obtain   many  privileges 
in  exchange  for  money.      Later   the  artisans  in  each  in- 
dustry banded  together  to  form  a  craft-gild ;  but  the  lat- 
ter did  not  become  very  important  until  the  fourteenth 
century. 

By  their  wealth  and  association  the  townsmen  became 
powerful,  and  were  able  to  obtain  exemptions  from  many 
burdens.  By  usurpation,  or  by  purchase,  or 
durinS  Perio(ls  of  political  strife,  they  secured 
one  privilege  after  another,  until  they  were  al-  xw 
most,  and  in  some  cases  entirely,  self-governing  communities. 
At  first  they  had  attempted  revolts,  but  the  early  ones  were 
crushed  with  great  cruelty.  When  the  crusades  began 
many  lords  were  glad  to  raise  money  by  selling  privileges 
to  the  towns.  In  such  cases  sometimes  a  "  commune  "  was 
formed,  which  was  composed  of  a  part  of  the  inhabitants 
and  acted  as  a  single  body,  entering  into  a  contract  with 
the  lord  to  pay  a  fixed  amount  in  return  for  the  rights 
which  they  desired.  In  other  cases  a  charter  was  sold  to 
the  town,  guaranteeing  its  inhabitants  against  all  illegal 
exactions  and  granting  to  them  certain  privileges.  During 
times  of  civil  war  the  support  and  wealth  of  the  citizens 
were  desired  by  both  parties,  who  vied  with  each  other  in 
offering  privileges.  Those  towns  which  were  owned  by  two  or 
more  masters  were  especially  fortunate,  as  the  interests  of 
the  owners  were  often  conflicting,  and  resulted  in  conces- 
sions from  both  parties  to  win  the  support  of  the  in- 
habitants. 


158 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


In  Germany  and  Italy,  where  the  central  governments 
were  weak,  some  of  the  cities  became  entirely  free  and  very 
Results  in  the  powerful.  Venice,  Florence,  Genoa,  and  Pisa 
different  obtained  great  possessions  in  different  parts  of 

countries,  ^he  Mediterranean.     Hamburg,  Bremen,  and 

Liibeck  are  still  free  cities  and  constituent  parts  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire.     In  France  and  England,  on  the  other  hand, 


MEDIEVAL  PLAYTHING. 

where  the  royal  power  was  strong,  tne  citizens  obtained  ex- 
emption from  their  burdens,  but  did  not  as  communities 
become  self-governing. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  wealthy  merchants  were 
no  longer  despised  by  the  nobility.     In  the  literature  of 
the  day  they  began  to  take  a  prominent  place, 
and,  in  fact,  a  new  literature,  written  especially 
for  the  citizens,  began  to  appear.     Individual 
merchants  were  appointed  to  office  under  Philip  Augustus 
in  France,  and  the  advice  of  the  citizens  was  often  sought 
in   enterprises  for  which  their  money  would  be  needed. 
Early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  both  in  France  and  in 


The  third 
estate, 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEOPLE  159 

England,  representative  men  were  summoned  to  consult 
with  the  nobles  and  the  clergy.  From  that  time  the 
Parliaments  were  composed  of  members  of  the  "three 
estates," l  clergy,  nobility,  and  commons. 

REFERENCES 

Emerton:  Europe,  chap.  xv.  Adams:  European  History,  pp. 
217-223.  Adams:  Civilization,  pp.  290-300.  Ashley:  English 
Economic  History  (New  York,  1892),  chaps,  i,  ii.  Cheyney :  Indus- 
trial and  Social  History  of  England,  chaps,  ii,  iii,  iv.  Robinson,  chap, 
xviii.  Jessopp,  Coming  of  the  Friars,  chap.  ii.  Cutts :  Parish  Priests, 
chap.  xxix.  * 

1  Up  to  this  time  only  the  first  two  estates— the  nobles  and  the  clergy 
— had  been  recognized  as  having  any  importance. 


CHAPTER  XV 
Schools  and  Universities 

SUMMARY. — The  teaching  was  done  by  the  members  of  the  clergy. 
In  the  early  centuries  it  was  confined  to  the  trivium,  the  quadrivium, 
and  theology.  In  the  twelfth  century  certain  centers,  especially  Paris, 
attracted  students,  so  that  education  became  more  extensive  and  more 
general.  Universities  came  into  existence,  and  the  students,  as  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy,  received  many  and  important  privileges.  The  cur- 
riculum was  broadened,  and  earnest  students  investigated  many  new 
branches  of  knowledge. 

DURING  the    early  middle    ages  teaching  was    done 
wholly  by  the  clergy.     In  some  of  the  towns  and  villages 
there  were  elementary  schools  taught  by  the 
teachers116          parish  priests.     In  the  monasteries  and  cities 
there  were   schools,  both  elementary  and  ad- 
vanced, under  the  charge  of  the  abbots  or  bishops.     What- 
ever learning  there  was  north  of  the  Alps  was  due  to  the 
labors  of  the  Church. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  refer  to  the  middle  ages 
as  the  dark  ages.     From  their  own  ignorance  of  the  facts 
historians  had  thought  that  the  medieval  world 
was  entirely  steeped  in  ignorance  and  barba- 
rism, that  there  was  no  learning  even  among 
the  churchmen,  and  that  all  society  was  in  a  state  of  chaos. 
Now  that  the  facts  are  known,  the  term  "  dark  ages  "  has 
been  abandoned,  or,  if  used,  is  applied  only  to  the  time 
between  the  breaking  up  of  the  Eoman  Empire  and  the 
eleventh  century  or,  still  more   narrowly,  to  the   period 
of  the  invasions  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries.     In  the 
160 


SCHOOLS  AND  UNIVERSITIES 


161 


history  of  education  in  Christian  Europe  the  latter  was  the 
darkest  age.  Charles  the  Great  had  been  anxious  to  edu- 
cate his  subjects,  and  under  his  rule  schools  had  been  es- 
tablished in  many  monasteries  and  towns.  Italian,  Eng- 
lish, and  Scotch,  as  well  as  native  scholars,  were  induced 
to  become  the  teachers  of  the  Franks.  During  the  period 
of  the  invasions  learning  was  maintained  only  in  a  few 
favorable  localities.  In  the  latter  years  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, especially  in  Germany,  there  was  a  reawakening,  and 
teaching  in  the  monastery  schools  became  more  common. 
The  influence  of  Cluny  was  very  important.  From  this 


NORMAN  SCHOOL. 

time    greater    attention  was   given  to  learning,  and  the 
schools  increased  in  number  and  improved  in  quality. 

Education  was  intended  wholly  for  the  service  of  the 
Church,  and  most  of  the  students  became  members  of  the 
secular  or  regular  clergy.  This  determined  to 
a  very  Sreat  extent  the  character  of  the  teach- 
ing. During  the  early  middle  ages  all  the 
studies  were  included  in  the  "  seven  liberal  arts  "  and  the- 
ology. First  came  the  trivium,  or  threefold  way:  gram- 
mar, rhetoric,  and  dialectics,  or  logic  ;  then  the  quadriviwn  : 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  The  trivium 
and  quadrivium  together  made  up  the  seven  liberal  arts. 


162  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

These  studies  were  not  taken  up  in  any  regular  order,  and 
the  names  of  the  various  subjects  do  not  indicate  their  con- 
tents. Grammar,  for  example,  included  the  study  of  the 
Latin  classics,  with  an  explanation  of  their  historical  and 
mythological  allusions.  Under  the  subjects  of  the  quad- 
rivium  were  grouped  all  the  fragments  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  natural  sciences.  Theology  was  the  most  im- 
portant branch,  and  the  study  of  the  seven  liberal  arts  was 
pursued  partly  as  a  preparation  for  the  correct  understand- 
ing of  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  writings  of  the  church 
fathers. 

The  teachers  read  the  text-books  to  the  pupils,  who  had 
none,  and  who  were  expected  to  commit  everything  to  mem- 
ory. When  a  scholar  failed  he  was  flogged ;  for- 
tunately  for  his  comfort,  he  was  not  expected  to 
learn  a  great  deal.  In  arithmetic  the  students 
were  taught  to  keep  simple  accounts ;  in  music,  what  was 
necessary  for  the  church  services  ;  in  geometry,  a  few  prob- 
lems ;  in  astronomy,  enough  to  calculate  the  date  of  Easter. 
It  was  not  until  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  that 
these  subjects  were  really  studied  seriously.  Before  that, 
when  a  boy  had  obtained  a  smattering  of  grammar  and  the 
quadrivium,  he  devoted  himself,  if  he  wished  to  study 
more,  to  theology  or  dialectics.  Frequently  he  would 
travel  from  place  to  place  to  hear  the  most  famous  teachers. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century  the  brilliant 
teaching  of  Abelard  attracted  to  Paris  students  from  all 
the  European  countries.  He  had  broken  away 
Prominence  of  from  the  traditions  of  the  students  of  the 

Paris. 

tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  who  were  apt  to 
accept  everything  written  as  necessarily  true,  and  insisted 
upon  questioning  the  correctness  of  the  information  handed 
down  by  the  earlier  writers.  This  point  of  view  was  novel, 
and  attracted  auditors  by  hundreds.  The  pleasant  life  in 
the  wealthy  capital  of  France  contributed  greatly  in  draw- 
ing students  from  other  parts  of  that  country,  and  from 


SCHOOLS  AND  UNIVERSITIES  163 

Germany,  England,  and  the  northern  lands.  From  this 
time  Paris  became  the  chief  center  of  learning  for  all  Eu- 
rope. In  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  said  that  "  France 
is  the  hearth  where  the  intellectual  bread  of  the  whole 
world  is  baked." 

Teachers  also  were  attracted  to  the  place  where  stu- 
dents congregated,  for  a  teacher's  income  was  derived  from 
Rise  of  the  *he  fees  paid  by  the  pupils  who  chose  to  listen 
University  of  to  him.  The  masters  and  students  who  were 
Pans,  foreigners  were  obliged  to  band  together  for 

mutual  protection  and  support,  as  they  were  not  citizens, 
and  consequently  without  the  protection  of  the  laws.  In 
the  frequent  rows  between  students  and  citizens  the  former 
would  naturally  support  one  another.  The  king  was  very 
glad  to  have  the  scholars  there  on  account  of  the  added 
wealth  which  they  brought  to  the  capital,  and  because  of 
the  prestige  which  the  great  school  conferred  upon  Paris. 
Consequently,  when  a  serious  fight  occurred,  in  which  five 
students  were  killed  by  the  king's  police  and  the  students 
threatened  to  leave  Paris  in  consequence,  the  king  offered 
them  special  privileges  if  they  would  remain.  It  was  in 
the  year  1200,  and  this  may  be  considered  the  date  for  the 
official  recognition  of  the  University  of  Paris,  although 
there  had  been  schools  in  existence  for  many  years,  and  the 
university  was  never  founded  in  the  modern  sense. 

The  word  university  was  originally  a  collective  term, 
and  was  applied  indifferently  to  a  learned  corporation,  a 
gild  of  artisans,  a  band  of  soldiers,  or  any  other  body  of 
men.  The  restriction  of  it  to  a  particular  institution  was 
an  accident.  What  we  call  a  university  was  called  in  the 
thirteenth  century  a  studium,  or  studium  gen- 
erale ;  the  addition  of  generals  meant  that  stu- 
dents from  different  countries  were  in  attend- 
ance. A  studium  generate  might  or  might  not  include 
schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology;  generally,  there 
was  at  least  one  of  these  schools  in  addition  to  the  fac- 


164  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

ulty  of  arts.  Sometimes  the  teachers  or  masters  controlled 
the  studium,  as  at  Paris ;  sometimes  the  students  were  the 
governing  body,  as  at  Bologna,  where  they  made  regula- 
tions as  to  what  studies  should  be  taught,  how  fast  the 
masters  should  lecture,  and  what  the  latter  should  wear. 

The  scholars  at  Paris  were  chiefly  a  body  of  men  from 
other  places,  bound  together  by  common  interests,  who 
would  remain  only  as  long  as  they  found  Paris 
attractive.  Furthermore,  they  were  either  al- 
ready members  of  the  clergy  or  intended  to 
become  members  later.1  These  facts  determined  the  char- 
acter of  the  privileges  granted  to  the  students.  The  king, 
in  1200,  exempted  them  from  trial  in  the  royal  courts  or  im- 
prisonment in  the  royal  prison,  and  gave  them  the  privilege 
of  being  tried  only  by  the  ecclesiastical  courts ;  he  extended 
their  privileges  to  the  servants  of  the  students,  if  the  ser- 
vants were  not  property-owners,  or  engaged  in  trade  at  Paris. 
But  the  most  important  of  all  the  privileges  was  the 
"right  of  migration."  The  university  held  no  property; 
the  lectures  were  delivered  in  hired  buildings, 

m^ratfn  S°   ^a^   &  was   verJ    easJ   ^or   *ne    whole    body 

of  masters  and  students  to  decamp  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  This  they  did  frequently  and  on  the  slight- 
est provocation.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  highly  advan- 
tageous to  a  city  to  possess  a  studium  generate.  It  was 
not  only  a  cause  of  prestige  but  also  a  very  considerable 
source  of  income.  The  universities  realized  their  advan- 
tage, and  exercised  their  right  of  suspending  lectures  to 
enforce  their  privileges.  The  course  of  events  was  usu- 
ally the  same.  The  students  became  involved  in  a  riot,  of 
which  they  were  commonly  the  cause;  the  police  were 
called  out ;  some  students  were  wounded  or  killed ;  the 
university  decreed  a  cessation  of  lectures  and  threatened 

1  It  is  said  that  twenty  of  Abelard's  pupils  became  cardinals,  and 
more  than  fifty,  bishops. 


SCHOOLS  AND  UNIVERSITIES 


165 


SEAL  OP  THE  UNIVER- 
SITY OP  PARIS. 


a  migration.     If   their   demands   for   redress   were   not 
promptly  complied  with  they  left  the   city.    The   final 
result  in  most  cases  was  a  full  compliance  with  the  stu- 
dents'   demands,    and    frequently    a 
payment   of    money   or   a    grant   of 
greater  privileges  to  them.    Probably, 
in  a  majority  of  cases,  the   scholars 
were  the  aggressors,   but   came   out 
triumphant.     Between  1188  and  1338, 
inclusive,  twelve  cessations  and  mig- 
rations from   Bologna   are   recorded, 
and    these   resulted  in    the  founda- 
tion   of    eight    "  permanent    studia 
generalia"  in  other  places.     In  fact, 
a  migration  was  the  most  usual  cause  of  the  foundation  of 
a  new  university. 

Foreigners,  who  were   natives   of   the   same  province, 
naturally  associated  together,  and  formed  a  club  for  social 
intercourse  and  self-protection,  just  as  Americans  studying 
in  Europe  do  now.     Gradually  these  associations  became 
more  definite,  and  spread  until  all  the 
students  were  enrolled  in  the  mem- 
bership of  some  province.    Provinces 
were  grouped  together  into  nations. 
Each  of  these  had  its  own  officers, 
money-chest,  and  seal.     Likewise  the 
students  and  teachers  of 
the  same  subjects  natu- 
rally drew  together,  and 
so  the  faculties  of  arts,  medicine,  law, 
and  theology  grew  up.     Each  univer- 
sity had  this  twofold  organization  of 
faculties  and  nations;   in  some  places,  as  has  been  said, 
the  masters  controlled  these  organizations ;  in  others,  the 
students.    The  faculty  of  arts  was  usually  the  most  numer- 
ous and  the  most  important. 
12 


Organization 
of  the  uni- 
versities, 


EEVERSE  OF  THE  SEAL 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  PARIS. 


166 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


The  curricu- 
lum, 


The  government  of  the  University  was  modeled  on  that 
of  the  gilds.  Masters  who  had  the  right  to  teach,  corre- 
sponded to  master-workmen ;  students  corre- 
sponded to  apprentices.  As  the  latter  had  to 
work  for  a  term  of  years  and  to  prove  their  fit- 
ness before  they  became  members  of  the  gild,  so  the  students 
must  study  for  six  years  and  pass  an  examination  before  they 
became  masters  in  art.  In  theology,  they  had  to  study 
eight  to  fourteen  years  before  they  became  masters.  The 
scholars  were  of  all  ages,  from  boys  of  twelve  to  old  men. 
The  studies  were  extremely  varied,  "  as  the  students  always 
desired  to  hear  something  new."  The  required  course  for 
the  degree  of  master  of  arts  was  composed  of  only  a  few 
subjects,  and  did  not  take  all  of  a  student's  time  for  six 
years.  Many  who  attended  the  uni- 
versities never  took  a  degree  at  all. 
Consequently  there  were  always  some 
desirous  of  taking  subjects  not  included 
in  the  required  course.  Mathematics 
and  the  natural  sciences  attracted  many 
students.  The  study  of  the  classics  was 
almost  entirely  abandoned  at  Paris  in 
the  thirteenth  century. 

In  the  early  monastic  schools  the 
pupils  had  not  been  required  to  pay 
for  their  tuition,  and  as  long  as  the 
teaching  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
monks  this  continued  to  be  the  cus- 
tom. But  when  masters  began  to  earn 
their  living  by  teaching,  the  students  were  required  to  pay. 
Some  of  the  latter  were  so  poor  that  they  had  to  beg  for 
their  living.  To  provide  for  such,  colleges  were 
founded  at  the  different  universities.  At  first 
these  were  merely  endowed  lodging-houses,  under  the  su- 
pervision of  a  resident  master.  Gradually  it  became  the 
custom  for  the  master  to  give  instruction  to  the  other  resi- 


SEAL  OF  A  DOCTOR, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS. 


SCHOOLS  AND  UNIVERSITIES 

dents,  until  the  colleges  became  the  principal  centers  for 
teaching.  Paris  was  the  great  home  of  the  college  system, 
and  from  there  it  spread  under  a  somewhat  changed  form 
to  the  English  and  other  universities  ;  much  later  the 
colleges  in  this  country  were  patterned  after  the  English 
models. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  Paris  was  the  chief  university 
north  of  the  Alps,  and  was  noted  especially  for  its  facul- 
ties of  arts  and  theology.  In  Bologna,  Italy,  where  a  stu- 
dium  generate  had  grown  up  somewhat  earlier  than  at 
Paris,  law  was  the  most  prominent  branch,  and  the  city 
was  thronged  with  students  from  all  the  European  coun- 
tries. The  University  of  Oxford,  although  in  existence 
earlier,  became  large  and  important  only  after  1229.  Then, 
in  consequence  of  a  town  and  gown  row,  in  which  several 
of  the  students  had  been  killed,  the  masters  and  scholars 
withdrew  from  Paris,  and  many  of  them  went  to  Oxford, 
because  the  king  of  England  had  offered  special  induce- 
ments. In  the  same  century  other  universities 
were  founded  in  Italy>  France,  Spain,  and  Eng- 
land. The  earliest  ones  in  Germany  date  from 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  number  of  students  at  the 
leading  universities  in  the  thirteenth  century  was  very 
large ;  Paris  and  Bologna  may  have  had  6,000  to  7,000  at 
the  time  of  their  greatest  prosperity;  Oxford  1,500  to 
3,000. 

The  majority  were  boys  in  their  teens  or  young  men, 
who  enjoyed  special  privileges  and  were  under  no  restraint. 
Drinking  was  a  universal  habit.  Under  these 
conditions  it  is  no  wonder  that  many  led  a 
disorderly  life,  and  that  in  an  age  when  fight- 
ing was  such  a  common  amusement  rows  were  very  fre- 
quent. The  rich  nobles  brought  armed  retainers  with 
them,-  and  sometimes  fights  arose  between  the  members  of 
different  nations.  The  amusements,  also,  were  of  a  very 
rough  form,  characteristic  of  the  age.  Yet  in  the  univer- 


168  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

sities  there  was  an  intellectual  life,  a  zest  for  knowledge 
which  led  to  a  rapid  advance.  Earnest  scholars,  like  Koger 
Bacon,  were  investigating  new  fields  and  laying  the  foun- 
dations for  the  wonderful  age  which  was  to  follow. 

REFERENCES 

Intellectual  Life  :  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  chap.  xiii.  Duruy, 
Middle  Ages,  pp.  222-230.  Robinson,  chap.  xix.  Schools:  West, 
Alcuin,  pp.  45-59.  Life  of  Students:  Rashdall,  Universities  (Cam- 
bridge, Eng.,  1895),  chap.,  xiv.  Building  up  a  University :  Jessopp, 
Coming  of  the  Friars,  chap.  vi.  Privileges,  Curriculum,  etc. :  Trans* 
lations  and  Reprints,  vol.  ii,  No.  3. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
The  Church  in  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Centuries 

SUMMARY. — In  the  thirteenth  century  the  great  authority  of  the    -.- 
Church  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Pope,  who  was  elected-hy  the  cardi- 
nals.    He  claimed  authority  over  kings  because  he  held  that  the  Church- — 
was  greater  than  the  state.     The  Church  had  its  own  courts,  which 
often  came  into  conflict  with  the  secular  courts.    There  were  many 
heretics  whom  the  clergy  believed  it  necessary  to  crush.     The  Albigen- 
sian  crusade  devastated  southern  France  and  led  to  the  Inquisition. 
The  inquisitors  were  chosen  from  the -Mendicant  Orders,  the  Domini- 
cans. _and  Franciscans,  who  were  noted  for  their  zeal  and  piety  and 
consequently  obtained  enormous  powers. 

AT  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Pope 
was  far  more  powerful  than  any  king.  The  authority  of 
the  Church  was  centralized  in  his  hands.  The 
agents  of  this  authority  were  picked  men  from 
all  ranks  of  society ;  for  the  members  of  the 
clergy  were  constantly  seeking  out  the  brightest  boys — the 
sons  of  peasants  as  well  as  the  sons  of  nobles — and  educat- 
ing them  for  the  Church.  The  clergy  were  unmarried,  and 
had  no  family  cares ;  they  were  free  from  all  necessity  of 
making  provision  for  their  daily  needs.  Consequently, 
they  were  able  to  devote  all  their  time  and  all  their 
energies  to  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  as  they  worked 
with  a  unity  of  purpose  their  power  was  irresistible.  Thes 
concentration  of  this  power  in  the  hands  of  the  Pope  had  1 
been  a  gradual  development  of  the  preceding  centuries. 

The  election  of  the  popes  themselves,  until  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century,  had  been  to   a  great  degree  in 


170  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

the  hands  of  the  emperors  when  the  latter  were  powerful  in 
Italy.  As  the  Church  gained  in  power  its  rulers  felt  that 
P  l  l  ^  was  a^s°lu^e^y  necessary  for  their  chief  to 

be  elected  only  by  the  members  of  the  Church, 
and  to  be  free  from  the  emperor's  control.  By  the  elect- 
oral decree  of  1059  the  power  of  election  was  lodged  almost 
wholly  in  the  cardinals. 

These  were  certain  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  who 
were  connected  with  the  churches  of  Rome  or  its  suburbs. 

They  were  the  most  important  members  of  the 
•\     /  The  cardinals,        ,  •       T-»  -i    7i         V  .  ~~M  .,  „ 

\  /  clergy  .in  Rome,  and  the  chief  councilors  of 

^  the  Pope.  When  and  how  their  title  originated  is  a  matter 
of  uncertainty,  but  since  the  age  of  Hildebrand  their  im- 
portance has  been  very  great.  The  number  varied  ;  in  the 
twelfth  century  there  were  usually  7  cardinal-bishops  bear- 
ing the  titles  of  the  suburban  churches l  of  Rome,  28  car- 
dinal-priests, who  represented  the  most  important  churches 
in  Rome,  and  18  cardinal-deacons  for  the  different  sections 
of  the  city. 

The  earlier  popes  had  sent  out  legates  occasionally  to 
represent  them,  and  to  act  in  their  place  where  they  were 
not  able  to  go  in  person.  Gregory  VII  made  a 
practise  of  sending  legates  to  represent  the 
papal  power  in  every  section  of  western  Europe.  These 
legates  presided  at  councils,  corrected  abuses,  and  kept  the 
Pope  in  close  touch  with  every  portion  of  the  Church. 
Cardinals  were  frequently  employed  as  legates.  In  this 
way  the  Pope  and  the  cardinals  obtained  a  more  direct 
supervision  over  the  whole  Church,  and  were  able  to  exer- 
cise political  influence  in  every  European  court.  It  is  not 
easy  to  exaggerate  the  practical  importance  oi  this  in  an 
age  when  communication  was  slow  and  uncertain. 

The  popes  confirmed  the  elections  of  archbishops  and 

1  Ostia,  Porto,  Santa  Rufina  or  Silva  Candida,  Albano,  Sabina,  Tus- 
culum,  and  Palestrina. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12ra  AND  13-TH  CENTURIES    171 

bishops.  They  determined  upon  the  canonization  of  saints 
and  the  authenticity  of  relics;  in  every  case  an  inquest 
was  held  to  determine  whether  the  person  proposed  was 
worthy  of  the  honor  of  being  numbered  among  the  saints^ 
or  whether  the  relic  was  re- 
ally what  it  was  said  to  be. 
They  had  the  right  to  grant 
dispensations,  or  licenses,  by  \ 
which  a  person  was  allowed 
to  do  something  which  was 
contrary  to  the  strict  letter 
of  the  law ;  for  example,  they 
could  release  a  person  from 
an  oath  which  he  had  taken, 
or  could  allow  him  to  marry 
one  of  his  cousins.  They  \ 
could  exempt  individual 
monasteries  and  monastic 
orders  from  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  bishops.  They 

convoked  gen-     THIRTEENTH  CENTURY  CHESSMAN. 
Control  over  i    ooirno;iq   of 

the  Church, 

the  Church  and  confirmed  their  canons.     In 

particular,  any  matter,  which  concerned  the  Church  in  any 
way,  could  be  brought  before  the  Pope  by  an  appeal  for  his 
decision.  Strictly  speaking,  his  jurisdiction  was  confined 
to  spiritual  matters  under  what  is  known  as  the  canon  law, 
but  the  temporal  powers  of  the  Church  were  so  large^tKat 
the  distinction  between  spiritual  and  temporal  things  was 
difficult,  and  the  Church  claimed  the  right  to  define  it.. 
Thus,  all  questions  arising  from  marriage  and  testaments 
became  subject  to  the  spiritual  courts  of  the  bishops,  and 
from  these  appeals  could  be  carried  to  the  Holy  See.  As 
the  Pope  also  enjoyed  original  jurisdiction,  it  can  readily 
be  seen  how  immense  was  the  business  flowing  into  Rome, 
how  large  were  the  revenues  thence  accruing,  and  how 


172  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

directly  the  papal  authority  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
people  even  to  the  most  remote  sections  of  Europe. 

The  Pope  thus  was  the  ultimate  arbiter  not  only  in  the 
field  of  morals  and  of  faith,  but  also  in  many  departments 
Power  of  the  °^  ^aw*  ^s  jurisdiction  extended  from  the 
Pope  over  lay  cottage  to  the  throne,  for  kings  were  Chris- 
tians, and  as  such  were  as  fully  responsible  to 
the  Church  for  their  conduct  as  the  humblest  of  their  sub- 
jects. If  a  monarch  committed  a  grievous  sin  and  refused 
to  make  amends,  the  Church,  acting  through  the  Pope, 
felt  it  necessary  to  punish  him.  Several  rulers  were  ex- 
communicated for  murder  or  for  gross  immorality.  If  they 
remained  obdurate  the  excommunication  was  extended  to 
an  interdict,  or  suspension  of  divine  services  throughout 
the  land,  in  order  that  the  subject  people  who  suffered 
might  bring  pressure  to  bear  upon  their  ruler  and  force 
him  to  make  amends.  Sometimes  the  Pope  released  the 
subjects  from  their  oaths  of  allegiance,  or  declared  a  king 
deposed  for  resistance  to  his  commands. 

Such  actions  did  not  meet  with  universal  approval ;  for 
many  felt  this  to  be  an  intrusion  by  the  Church  upon  the 
rights  of  the  state.     The  deposition  of  Henry  IV  by  Greg- 
ory VII,  and  of  Frederick  II  by  Innocent  IV,  aroused  bit- 
ter opposition,  as    their   followers   held  that    Henry  and 
Frederick  were  kings  by  the  grace  of  God  and  by  the  choice 
of  the  German  people  ;  although  they  might  justly  be  pun- 
ished for  their  sins,  the  popes  had  no  control  over  their 
power  as  kings.     The  popes  and  their  follow- 
ers'  on  ^ne  °^ner  hand,  insisted  that  the  depo- 
was  greater        sition  was  a  necessary  measure  of  discipline, 
because  the  kings  were  unrepentant,  and  the 
I  Church  was  supreme.     They  proclaimed  that  the  monarchs 
who  ruled  only  over  earthly  dominions  and  the  bodies  of 
\  men  were  subordinate  to  the  papacy,  which  had  been  given 
the  keys  of  heaven  and  the  control  over  the  souls  of  men. 
They  held  that  the  Pope  was  as  the  sun,  and  the  kings  as 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12ra  AND  13TH  CENTUEIES    173 

the  moon,  which  shone  only  by  the  light  reflected  from  the 
sun.    Using  the  feudal  idea,  that  a  king  held  his  kingdom 
as  a  fief  from  God,  they  proclaimed  that  the  Pope,  as  the 
representative  of  God, 
could  bestow  or  take 
away   any   kingdom. 
Some    kings    were 
willing,    some    were 
forced,    to     admit 
this    theory.      King 
John     of     England, 
Peter  II  of  Aragon, 
Sancho   I   of    Portu- 
gal, and  other  mon- 
archs,  .acknowledged 
themselves  to  be  vas- 
sals of  the  Pope.    At 
times  during  the   thirteenth  century  it 
seemed  as  if  the  latter  might  become  the 
suzerain  of  almost  all  the  kings  of  Europe. 
In  order  to  regulate  the  conduct  of  its 
members  the  Church  was  obliged  to  main- 
tain an  ecclesiastical  court  in  every  dio- 
cese in  addition  to  the  feudal  courts  in 
which  the  bishops'  delegates  administered 
feudal  law.     In  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
were  tried  all  suits  in  which  one  or  both 
of  the  parties  were  members  of  the  clergy ;      CROZIER  OF  THE 
as  such  they  had  the  right  to  be  tried 
only  by  these  courts.     This  was  granted 
as  a  privilege  to  all  who  had  taken  a  vow  to  go  on  a  cru- 
sade, and  to  students  at  the  universities.     Besides  having 
jurisdiction  over  certain  persons,  the  ecclesiastical  coui 
tried  certain  classes  of  crime.     All  matters  relative  to 
Christian  faith,  the  church  sacraments,  or  vows  which  hi 
been  taken ;  all  crimes  committed  in  holy  places ;  all  vio- 


174  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

lations  of  the  Truce  of  God  or  of  laws  enacted  by  the  Church 
— either  were  or  might  be  brought  into  these  courts.  For 
this  reason  heresy,  questions  relating  to  mar- 
fiage  an(l  divorce — for  marriage  was  a  sacra- 
ment— all  transactions  which  had  been  accom- 
panied by  an  oath,  and  many  other  classes  of  cases,  were 
tried  by  the  bishops'  officials.  In  fact,  there  were  compara- 
tively few  cases  which  could  not  be  brought  within  the 
competence  of  an  ecclesiastical  court  by  a  liberal  interpre- 
tation of  its  jurisdiction.  For  example,  the  Church  had 
prohibited  the  payment  of  interest  when  money  was  bor- 
rowed ;  consequently,  any  business  transaction  involving  a 
loan  might  be  brought  before  this  court. 

Frequently  a  case  might,  with  equal  right,  be  tried  either 
in  a  royal  or  baronial  court  or  in  an  ecclesiastical  court ; 
Conflict  with  *or  a  ma^er  of  strictly  secular  business  might 
the  secular  have  been  ratified  by  an  oath.  It  was  to  the 
courts,  interest  of  the  king  and  the  barons  that  all 

such  cases  should  be  tried  in  their  own  courts,  because  the 
judicial  fines  and  payments  constituted  a  considerable  part 
of  their  income.  Frequently  one  or  both  of  the  litigants 
preferred  to  carry  the  case  before  the  bishop's  court,  partly 
because  the  law  was  thought  to  be  administered  more  in- 
telligently, and  partly'  because  the  ecclesiastical  penalties 
for  many  crimes  were  less  severe.  In  the  civil  courts  death 
and  the  mutilation  of  limbs  were  common  punishments ; 
the  ecclesiastical  courts  were  forbidden  to  inflict  any  pen- 
alty which  would  cause  the  shedding  of  blood.  Up  to  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century  there  had  been  little  or  no 
conflict  between  the  two  kinds  of  courts,  which  had  often 
been  of  mutual  aid.  From  that  time,  however,  the  lay  pow- 
ers became  jealous  of  what  they  considered  encroachments 
on  their  rights.  The  great  conflict *  in  England  between 
Henry  II  and  Thomas  Becket  was  due  mainly  to  this  cause. 

1  See  Chap.  XIX. 


1 


TI 


HE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12TH  AND  13TH  CENTURIES    1T5 

The  law  administered  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  was  the 
canon  law  or  the  law  of  the  Church.  Its  chief  sources 
were  custom  or  unwritten  law,  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, the  writings  of  the  church  fathers,  the 
canons  passed  by  church  councils,  and  the  decretals  of  the 
popes.  About  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  all  the 
existing  laws  were  codified  by  Gratian  in  the  Decretum. 
The  work  was  so  well  done  and  so  convenient  that,  although 
it  had  at  first  no  official  sanction,  it  soon  became  recognized 
as  the  authoritative  collection  of  the  canon  law.  New  laws 
were  being  made  constantly  by  papal  decretals  to  meet  new 
cases.  From  time  to  time  collections  of  these  were  made 
and  added  to  the  Decretum  to  form  the  corpus  or  body  of 
canon  law. 

The  great  increase  in  power  was  not  obtained  without 

opposition.     The  monastic  ideals  of  the  age  led  some  to 

object  to  the  wealth    and  authority  of  the 

eresies,  o  return 


to  apostolic  simplicity  and  poverty.      The  crusades   had 
made  men  acquainted  with  other  religions,  and  had  aroused 
a  thirst  for  knowledge  which  caused  some  to  question  even 
the  teachings  of  the  Church.     The  connection  with  the 
East  had  brought  in  many  new  ideas,  some  of  which  were 
directly   opposed    to    the   established   doctrines.      Conse-  \ 
quently  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  witnessed  the     V 
rise  of  many  heretics,  who  may  be  grouped  under  two      / 
heads  :  Antisacerdotalists  and  Manicheans. 

From  time  to  time  men  came  forward  teaching  that  it  ; 
was  not  necessary  to  obey  the  clergy.  They  held  very 
divergent  points  of  view,  but  they  may  be 
classed  together  as  antisacerdotalists  f"SncT  nf 
their  development  they  became  known  to  his- 
tory as  the  Poor  Men  of  Lyons  or  Waldenses,  finally  merg- 
ing with  the  Protestants  during  the  Reformation.  The 
Manicheans,  on  the  other  hand,  held  the  Oriental  idea  of 
two  powers,  one  of  evil  and  the  other  of  good,  who  were  in 


176  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

eternal  warfare,  and  that  the  material  universe  had  been 
created  by  the  principle  of  evil.  They  were  widely  spread 
over  southern  Europe,  and  although  divided  into  sects  of 
slightly  varying  beliefs,  they  classed  themselves  under  the 
common  name  of  Cathari  or  the  Pure.  To  the  orthodox 
they  were  known  by  many  designations,  of  which  the  most 
usual  one  was  Patarins,  while  in  southern  France,  where 
they  were  very  numerous,  they  were  called  Albigenses.  It 
is  superfluous  to  say  that  they  denied  all  authority  to  the 
Church. 

The  time  when  these  heresies  were  spreading  most  rap- 
idly was  a  period  when  Christian  Europe  as  a  whole  felt 
the  need  of  union  against  common  foes.    Jeru- 
Need  of  crush-     saiem  nacL  been  captured  by  Saladin,  and  the 

mg  heresy,  j    •  n    •       -j. 

Church  was  doing  all  in  its  power  to  arouse 
zeal  for  crusades  to  recover  the  holy  city.  In  Spain  the  in- 
vasion of  the  Almohades  threatened  to  crush  the  rising 
Christian  kingdoms.  In  the  northeast  of  Germany  and 
elsewhere  the  Christians  were  struggling  against  the  pa- 
gans. The  heretics  were  very  numerous,  and  had  obtained 
control  over  some  cities  in  Italy,  while  in  southern  France 
they  had  become  powerful  enough  to  obtain  virtual  tolera- 
tion from  the  feudal  lords.  They  refused  to  pay  the  tithes 
to  the  clergy  or  to  recognize  their  authority,  and  were  a 
menace  to  the  temporal  power  which  the  Church  was  rap- 
idly acquiring.  A  Cistercian  wrote  that  if  they  were  not 
crushed  they  would  soon  extend  over  all  Europe.  They 
were  included  with  the  Arians,  Mohammedans,  Jews,  pa- 
gans, and  German  emperors  as  the  chief  persecutors  of 
Christianity.  The  Church  recognized  that  if  they  were 
not  subdued  the  time  was  at  hand  when  there  would  be  a 
struggle  on  equal  terms.  Members  of  the  clergy  who  were 
engaged  in  combating  the  heresies  might  bear  witness  to 
the  excellent  morals  of  the  heretics,  but  duty  to  the  faith 
required  that  the  heresy  should  be  exterminated.  Ideas  of 

entire  religious  toleration  did  not  exist  in  the  Christian 

• 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12TH  AND  13TH  CENTURIES    177 

world  until  several  centuries  later,  and  then  arose  only  in 
the  new  world,  with  Roger  Williams  in  Rhode  Island,  among 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  Maryland,  and  among  the  Quakers 
in  Pennsylvania. 

In  Languedoc  *  the  heretics  formed  a  large  portion  of 
the  population,  and  were  supported  by  many  of  the  nobil- 
ity. Missionary  labors  in  conversion  and  efforts 
sianmisade"  *°  stimulate  the  rulers  to  persecution  proved 
equally  fruitless.  In  1208  the  papal  legate  was 
murdered  by  a  squire  of  the  count  of  Toulouse,  who  had 
been  for  several  years  under  sentence  of  excommunication. 
This  caused  intense  excitement,  and  led  to  immediate  ac- 
tion. Innocent  III  renewed  the  excommunication,  released 
the  subjects  from  their  oath  of  allegiance,  and  summoned 
all  Christians  to  pursue  the  count  and  to  seize  his  domin- 
ion. In  July,  1209,  an  army  of  50,000  men,  led  by  the  papal 
legate,  marched  against  the  heretics,  who  were  put  to  death 
in  great  numbers,  and  towns  were  burned.  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort  was  made  the  leader,  and  succeeded  in  conquering  the 
greater  part  of  Languedoc.  He  was  killed  in  1218,  and  his 
son  was  unable  to  hold  his  conquests.  King  Philip  Augus- 
tus sent  his  son  Louis  to  aid.  This  expedition  was  marked 
by  great  cruelty.  In  one  town  all  the  inhabitants — 5,000 
men,  women,  and  children — were  slaughtered  in  cold  blood. 
The  crusade  had  now  become  only  a  political  war  to  extend 
the  domination  of  the  crown  over  the  great  feudatories  of 
the  south,  for  whose  subjugation  the  existence  of  the  here- 
tics served  as  an  excuse.  The  son  of  Simon  de  Montfort 
resigned  his  rights  to  Louis  VIII  of  France,  who,  in  1226, 
made  a  triumphal  expedition  and  took  possession  of  almost 
the  whole  of  Languedoc  without  serious  opposition.  After 
his  death  the  war  dragged  on  until  1229,  when  Raymond, 

1  Languedoc,  the  part  of  southern  France  which  lay  between  the 
Garonne  and  the  Rhone,  where  the  people  used  oc  for  yes.  In  the  north 
oil  was  used  for  yes.  Hence  the  two  parts  were  distinguished  as  Lan- 
gue  d'oc  and  Langue  d'oil,  or  the  speech  of  oc  and  the  speech  of  oil. 


178  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

count  of  Toulouse,  submitted  and  abandoned  most  of  his 
territory  to  the  Crown. 

Although  heresy  had  been  crushed  in  Toulouse  by  vio- 
lence, it  had  not  been  extirpated.     In  Italy  heretics  were 
extremely  numerous.     The  emperor,  Freder- 

The  Inquisition,    .   ,      TT     T  .  ,.    ,      , 

ick  II,  in  various  edicts  between  1220  and 
1239,  ordered  that  any  one  of  his  subjects  who  had  been 
convicted  of  heresy  by  the  church  officials  should  be  burned 
and  his  property  be  confiscated.  This  gradually  became  the 
law  in  other  countries.  Gradually,  also,  the  Church  de- 
veloped an  effective  system  for  detection  of  heresy  by  the 
Inquisition.  Suspected  persons  might  be  tortured  in  order 
to  extract  from  them  a  confession  of  their  guilt.  Those 
who  were  convicted  of  heresy  and  remained  obdurate  were 
handed  over  to  the  secular  powers,  and  were  burned  by  the 
latter.  Those  who  professed  repentance  and  conversion 
were  penanced  by  imprisonment  for  life,  or  by  scourging 
or  pilgrimages,  or  by  wearing  red  crosses  upon  their  gar- 
ments. The  proceedings  of  the  Inquisition  were  secret, 
and  consequently  caused  great  terror  to  all  in  any  way  in- 
volved in  heresy.  The  property  of  heretics  was  confiscated 
by  the  kings,  who  were  therefore  interested  in  maintaining 
the  Inquisition.  It  was  felt  to  be  necessary  that  the  in- 
quisitors, who  were  given  great  power,  and  were  responsi- 
ble only  to  the  Pope,  should  be  impartial,  learned,  and  free 
from  all  suspicion  of  avarice  or  motives  of  revenge,  and  as 
the  best  means  of  attaining  this  they  were  usually  selected 
from  the  mendicant  orders,  the  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans. 

St.  Dominic,  from  whom  the  Dominicans  take  their 
name,  was  born  in  1170,  and  after  studying  theology  de- 
voted himself  to  the  conversion  of  the  heretics 
in  Languedoc.     He  was  earnest  and  zealous  in 
his  work  and  winning  in  his  manner.     In  1214  he  gathered 
about  him  a  few  followers  who   gave  themselves   up   to 
preaching  and   combating  false   doctrine.     In   1215  they 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12TH  AND  13-TH  CENTURIES    179 

received  papal  sanction  and  adopted  the  rule  of  Augustinian 
Canons.  Their  purpose  was  to  fit  themselves  by  the  study 
of  theology  for  the  task  of  preaching,  and  they  were  called 
"  preaching  friars."  In  1217  the  sixteen  brethren  who  had 
joined  St.  Dominic  were  sent  out  to  preach  in  Spain, 
France,  and  Italy.  They  were  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm, and  many  hastened  to  join  the  order.  By  1221,  sixty 
convents  had  been  established  in  Spain,  France,  Italy,  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  Hungary,  and  the  members  were  win- 
ning universal  respect  by  their  learning  and  piety.  From 
this  time  the  order  was  of  the  greatest  assistance  in  preach- 
ing the  faith  and  in  combating  heresy. 

Francis  of  Assisi  was  born  in  1182,  and  in  his  twentieth 
year  dev.oted  his  life  to  poverty  and  the  service  of  others. 

He  was  humble,  patient,  merciful,  and  always 
Franciscans,  „   ,       T  ,       ,  .     „  ,,  .  ,*; 

cneeriul.     Love  lor  ms  tellow  men,  especially 

the  poor  and  suffering,  was  his  most  marked  characteristic. 
Gradually  a  few  others  joined  him,  for  whom  he  framed  a 
rule  requiring  absolute  poverty,  and  ordering  the  brethren 
to  work  for  their  own  living,  to  go  about  on  foot,  and  to 
preach  the  faith.  The  order  was  sanctioned  by  the  Pope 
in  1215,  and  increased  so  rapidly  in  membership  that  in 
1221  it  already  included  thousands.  The  Franciscans,  or 
Minorites,  devoted  themselves  especially  to  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  the  tending  of  lepers.  They  won  great  love  and 
respect,  and  by  their  preaching  led  thousands  to  repent- 
ance. In  an  age  of  brutality  and  violence  they  exemplified 
the  Christian  virtues  of  humility,  patience,  love,  mercy, 
and  devotion  to  others.  They  sought  to  proselyte  Moham- 
medans and  pagans,  and  braved  every  danger  in  their  mis- 
sionary work.  Francis  himself  went  to  Syria  to  the  sultan 
of  Babylon.  His  followers  and  the  Dominicans  vied  with 
one  another  in  their  efforts  to  convert  the  infidels  every- 
where, 

In  fact,  the  members  of   these  two   orders  wandered 
about  on  foot,  enduring  the  most  extreme  privations,  intent 


180  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

only  upon  serving  their  fellow  men.  This  example  was  con- 
tagious, so  that  everywhere  they  went  men  and  women 
wished  to  abandon  all  to  enter  the  mendicant  orders.  In 
order  to  enroll  these  laymen  in  active  service,  St.  Francis 
Power  of  the  formed  an  organization  known  as  "  The  Broth- 
mendicant  ers  and  Sisters  of  Penitence,"  whose  members 
were  to  continue  their  usual  pursuits  and  to 
lead  a  holy  life.  It  was  called  generally  the  Tertiary  Order 
of  Minorites,  or  Franciscans.  Dominic  founded  a  similar 
order  under  the  name  of  "  The  Soldiery  of  Christ."  All  of 
the  mendicants  were  active  agents  of  the  papacy,  and  were 
employed  constantly  on  papal  business  in  every  country  of 
Europe.  Unfortunately,  the  unbounded  reverence  of  the 
people  conferred  on  the  mendicants  enormous  wealth  ;  the 
precepts  of  the  founders  were  neglected  by  some  of  the 
brethren,  and  corruption  crept  in,  as  it  had  done  in  the 
older  orders.  Yet,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  men  who 
were  most  noted  both  for  their  intellectual  supremacy  and 
zealous  piety  were,  with  few  exceptions,  members  of  the 
mendicant  orders. 

REFERENCES 

Church  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Thirteenth  Century :  Sabatier,  St. 
Francis  (New  York,  1894),  chap.  iii.  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Francis : 
Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  vi,  pp.  1-45;  Lea,  Inquisition  (New 
York,  1888),  vol.  i,  pp.  243-268;  Sabatier,  chap.  5.  Work  of 
Friars :  Jessopp,  Coming  of  the  Friars,  chap.  i.  Inquisition :  Mil- 
man, vol.  vi,  pp.  311-317  ;  Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  iii,  No.  6. 
Religious  Opinions :  Cutts,  Parish  Priests,  chap,  xxxii. 

POPES,  1124-1303 

Honorius  II,  1124-1130.  Alexander  III,  1159-1181. 

Innocent  II,  1130-1143.  Lucius  III,  1181-1185. 

Celestine  II,  1143-1144.  Urban  III,  1185-1187. 

Lucius  II,  1144-1145.  Gregory  VIII,  1187. 

Eugene  III,  1145-1153.  Clement  III,  1187-1191. 

Anastasius  IV.  1153-1154.  Celestine  III,  1191-1198. 

Hadrian  IV,  1154-1159.  Innocent  III,  1198-1216. 


THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  12TH  AND  13TH  CENTURIES    181 

Honorius  III,  1216-1227.  Hadrian  V,  1276. 

Gregory  IX,  1227-1241.  John  XXI,  1276-1277. 

Celestine  IV,  1241.  Nicholas  III,  1277-1280.  ~ 

Innocent  IV,  1243-1254.  Martin  IV,  1281-1285. 

Alexander  IV,  1254-1261.  Honorius  IV,  1285-1287. 

Urban  IV,  1261-1264.  Nicholas  IV,  1288-1292. 

Clement  IV,  1265-1268.  Celestine  V,  1294. 

Gregory  X,  1271-1276.  Boniface  VIII,  1294-1303. 
Innocent  V,  1276. 


182  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


GEOWTH  OF  THE  NATIONS 

SUMMARY. — During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  Ger« 
man  Empire  attained  its  period  of  greatest  glory.     But  its  strength 
was  sapped  by  the  unwillingness  of  the  electors  to  choose  a  strong  man, 
or  to  recognize  the  right  of  hereditary  succession.     The  long  struggle 
between  the  Guelphs  and  the  Ghibellines,  the  Hohenstaufen  policy  of 
buying  support  by  bartering  away  imperial  rights,  the  opposition  of 
the  papacy,  and  the  rebellions  of  the  Lombard  League,  deprived  the 
empire  of  all  real  authority.     In  the  latter  half  of  the 
HAPT  thirteenth  century  Germany  became  divided  into  many 

states,  and  remained  disunited  until  the  last  third  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  northern  Italy  the  cities,  freed  from  all  im- 
perial control,  developed  into  republics.  The  Swiss  cantons  succeeded 
in  emancipating  themselves  from  the  duke  of  Swabia's  authority  and 
established  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Along  the  Baltic  Sea  the  German 
cities  formed  the  Hanseatic  League  and  built  up  a  great  commercial 
and  political  supremacy,  while  the  Teutonic  Order  was  engaged  in 
a  crusade  which  resulted  in  the  foundation  of  Prussia. 

SUMMARY. — At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  French 
kings  had  little  power  or  territory ;  two  hundred  years  later  they 
were  absolute  monarchs  of  France.  They  had  succeeded  in  bringing 
the  various  fiefs  under  their  direct  control  and  in  substituting  mon- 
archical institutions  for  feudal  usages.  In  doing  so,  they  had  been 
aided  by  the  development  of  a  recognition  that  the  kingship  was  he- 
reditary,  and  by  assistance  from  the  third  estate.  Th~e"y 
established  royal  courts  which  superseded  the  baronial, 
and  a  national  system  of  finance  which  freed  them  from 
dependence  upon  feudal  contributions.  They  took  advantage  of  the 
misfortunes  of  their  vassals  to  obtain  Languedoc  and  almost  all  the 
English  possessions  in  France.  The  just  rule  of  St.  Louis  and  the 
political  ability  of  Philip  the  Fair  made  France  the  leading  country 
in  Europe.  Under  the  latter  king  the  States  General  was  organized. 

SUMMARY. — In  England  the  authority  of  the  king  was  greatly  dimin- 
ished during  this  period.  Almost  all  the  possessions  in  France  were 
lost,  and  the  only  permanent  addition  of  territory  in  Great  Britain 
was  Wales.  During  the  period  of  anarchy,  when  Stephen  was  king,  the 
Church  became  very  powerful.  Henry  II  attempted  to  submit  it  to  the 
royal  authority,  but  was  hindered  by  the  murder  of  Tiomas  Becket. 
John  became  a  papal  vassal,  and  Henry  III  was  very  subservient,  but 


GROWTH  OF  THE  NATIONS  183 

Edward  I  began  the  long  series  of  royal  enactments  directed  toward 
the  restriction  of  the  power  of  the  Pope,  which  culminated  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  English  Church.     In  political  matters 
CHAPTER  the  authority.  Of  the  king,  which  was  built  up  by  Henry 

II,  was  diminished  under  John  and  Henry  III.  The 
barons  and  citizens,  by  joining  together,  compelled  the  monarch  to  con- 
sult their  wishes.  Under  Edward  I  the  Model  Parliament  was  as- 
sembled, and  it  was  agreed  that  the  king  could  levy  no  general  tax 
without  authorization  from  Parliament. 

SUMMARY.— In  Spain  the  small  Christian  states  were  gradually 
consolidated  into  the  kingdoms  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  territory 
held  by  the  Moors  was  slowly  conquered,  and  in  1492  Granada,  their 
last  possession,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  The 
Byzantine  Empire  became  very  weak,  so  that  it  was 
easily  conquered  by  the  crusaders  in  1204.  But  the  em- 
pire which  they  established  soon  succumbed  to  the 
Greeks,  and  the  latter,  after  an  inglorious  rule  of  two  centuries,  were 
conquered  by  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Russia  was  weakened  by  internal 
discord,  so  that  it  made  no  united  resistance  to  the  Tartars  who  over- 
fan  the  country  in  the  thirteenth  century.  From  that  time  it  was  for 
some  centuries  shut  off  from  intercourse  with  Europe.  The  Scan- 
dinavian countries,  too,  failed  to  establish  strong  states.  The  Finns 
conquered  Hungary,  which  became  their  home.  In  Bohemia  the  Slavs 
founded  a  successful  kingdom,  which  soon  came  under  German  i 
ence,  but  in  Poland  they  fell  a  prey  to  anarchy. 


£\ 


CHAPTER  XVII 
Germany    and    Italy 


AFTEE  the  disintegration   of  the  Carolingian  empire 

western  Europe  was  divided  into  many  fragments,  ruled 

by  feudal  lords.     In  each  country  there  was  a 

Civilization,  *  .  . 

tenth  and  elev-  king  who  was  nominally  the  suzerain  ;  but  his 
enth  centuries,  reaj  power  depended  almost  entirely  upon  his 
immediate  feudal  possessions,  and  these  were  seldom  large 
enough  to  furnish  him  with  a  strong  army  or  a  sufficient 
income.  The  work  of  centralization,  which  he  was  not 
able  to  accomplish,  was  undertaken  by  the  clergy.  As  edu- 
cation was  wholly  in  their  control,  Latin,  the  language  of 
the  Church,  became  the  language  of  all  educated  persons. 
All  books  and  all  legal  documents  were  written  in  Latin. 
Furthermore,  the  civilization  which  resulted  from  the  in- 
teraction of  feudal  usages  and  clerical  influence  was  remark- 
ably uniform  in  the  different  countries.  Institutions  like 
the  Truce  of  God  found  favor  among  the  different  nations, 
and  a  general  movement  like  the  first  crusade  was  possible. 
In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  power  of  the 
feudal  barons  was  undermined  by  the  growing  importance 
of  the  monarchs  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the 
r^se  °^  the  third  estate  on  the  other.  The 
thirteenth  influence  of  the  Church  was  shaken  by  the 
influx  of  new  ideas  and  by  the  political  con- 
tests waged  between  the  popes  and  kings.  Education  be- 
came more  common,  and  literatures  in  the  vernacular  were 
developed.  The  modern  nations  began  to  take  shape.  In 
each  one  of  the  leading  countries  the  same  forces  were  at 
184 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  185 

work  and  the  elements  were  the  same,  but  because  of  dif- 
ferences in  the  local  conditions  the  results  varied  greatly ; 
and  these  results  determined  the  future  course  of  events, 
as  will  be  apparent  in  the  sequel  to  this  work. 

In  spite  of  the  troubles  of  the  Investiture  Struggle,  Ger- 
many seemed  farthest  advanced  and  the  strongest  of  the 
nations.     Moreover,  under  the  able  rulers  of 

Results  in 

Germany  and  the  Hohenstaufen  house,  the  empire  attained 
Italy,  its  greatest  glory  and  its  widest  influence,  so 

that  it  seemed  destined  to  include  all  Christian  countries. 
But  this  glory  was  only  transient,  and  Germany,  weighed 
down  by  the  burden  of  Italy — a  veritable  old  man  of  the 
sea — wasted  her  strength  and  resources  in  chimerical  proj- 
ects. After  the  extirpation  of  the  Hohenstaufen  family 
the  two  countries  lost  all  semblance  of  unity.  They  were 
divided  into  many  fragments,  each  one  practically  inde- 
pendent and  constantly  at  war  with  its  neighbors.  Indi- 
vidual cities  and  lords  became  famous,  and  a  remarkable 
civilization  was  developed  in  certain  centers ;  but  Germany 
and  Italy  did  not  become  nations  until  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  order  to  explain  the  causes  of 
the  transient  strength  of  the  empire  and  of  its  ruin  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  it  is  necessary  to  study  the  careers  of 
some  of  the  rulers. 

When  Henry  V  died,  in  1125,  leaving  no  son,  the  two 
most  prominent  candidates  for  the  crown  were  Frederick  of 
0  osition  to  ^ie  Hohenstaufen  family,  duke  of  Swabia,  and 
hereditary  Lothair,  duke  of  Saxony.  The  first  was  the 
kingship.  nephew  of  Henry,  and  had  been  designated  by 

him  as  his  successor.  His  election  seemed  assured,  as  his 
brother  Conrad  was  duke  of  Franconia,  and  his  father-in- 
law,  a  member  of  the  Guelf  family,  was  duke  of  Bavaria. 
It  was  therefore  probable  that  he  would  have  the  support 
of  three  out  of  the  four  great  races  of  Germany.  But  the 
lesser  nobles  had  secured  much  power  during  the  Investi- 
ture Struggle,  when  the  kings  had  been  obliged  to  buy  their 


186  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

support  by  concessions,  and  now  they  desired  to  assert  that 
the  monarchy  was  elective  and  not  hereditary.  The  lead- 
ing members  of  the  clergy  were  opposed  to  Frederick,  be- 
cause he  had  supported  Henry  V  in  the  latter's  struggle 
with  the  Pope.  The  duke  of  Bavaria  was  induced  to 
abandon  his  son-in-law,  and  all  the  elements  of  opposition 
joined  in  the  election  of  Lothair  (1125-1137),  who  had  been 
the  chief  opponent  of  Henry  V.  The  marriage  of  Lothair's 
daughter  with  the  duke  of  Bavaria's  son  increased  the 
power  of  the  Guelf  family. 

Frederick  the  Hohenstaufen  was  the  heir  of  his  uncle, 
Henry  V,  and  held  all  the  latter's  possessions.  Lothair 
demanded  the  resignation  of  some  fiefs  which 
GWbeliines,  ne  claimed  as  royal  property.  From  this  time 
the  Guelfs  and  Hohenstaufens  were  engaged 
in  intermittent  strife  until  the  extinction  of  the  latter 
family.  The  Hohenstaufens  were  known  as  Ghibellines l 
— an  Italian  name  formed  from  the  German  Waiblingen,  a 
Hohenstaufen  possession.  Conrad,  the  brother  of  Fred- 
erick the  Hohenstaufen,  was  elected  as  anti-king  in  Italy, 
but  had  little  real  power,  and  after  some  years,  yielding  to 
the  eloquence  of  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  was  reconciled  to 
Lothair. 

On  the  death  of  the  latter,  his  son-in-law,  the  Guelf 
Henry,  became  duke  of  Saxony  as  well  as  of  Bavaria,  and 
expected  to  be  elected  king.  The  same  jeal- 
ousy  on  the  part  of  the  lesser  nobles  which 
had  caused  the  election  of  Lothair,  now  caused 
the  rejection  of  Henry,  whose  excessive  power  was  feared. 
The  opponents  of  strong  government  favored  the  Hohen- 
staufen Conrad,  who  became  king. 


1  The  names  of  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  were  soon  adopted  as  designa- 
tions for  the  papal  and  imperial  partizans  respectively.  Transplanted 
into  Italy,  they  were  used  later  to  designate  party  factions  in  the  dif- 
ferent cities,  without  much  regard  to  their  former  meaning. 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY 


187 


/His  nephew,  Frederick  I,  in  whom  the  Ghibelline  and 
Guelf  stocks  combined,1  had  shown  great  ability  as  duke 
of  Swabia,  and  when  Conrad  died  was  the  choice 
Barbarossa,2  of  all  parties.  His  subjects  admired  his  beauty 
1152-1190,  an(j  trusted  in  his  virtues.  With  intense  zeal 
he  undertook  "to  reestablish  the  Roman  Empire  on  its 
ancient  basis."  His  hero  was  Charles  the  Great,  whose 
canonization  he  secured 
from  an  anti-pope,  and  he 
intended  to  exercise  all 
the  rights  ever  possessed 
by  Roman  emperors.  He 
believed  fully  in  the  max- 
im that  "the  will  of  the 
emperor  has  the  force  of 
law."  The  imperial  pre- 
rogatives which  had  been 
lost  through  the  weakness 
of  the  preceding  kings  he 
intended  to  exercise  in 
every  portion  of  the  em- 
pire. Under  him  the 
"Roman  Empire  of  the 
German  Nation  "  regained 
its  prestige,  and  became 
known  as  the  "  Holy  Ro- 
man Empire."  Most  of 
his  long  reign,  however, 

was  spent  in  unsuccessful  attempts  to  reduce  his  Italian 
subjects  to  obedience. 

For  a  century  the  German  monarchs  had  been  either 
too  weak  or  too  fully  occupied  elsewhere  to  govern  Italy 
effectively.  In  the  north  the  Lombard  cities  had  become 


STATUE  OF  FREDERICK  BARBAROSSA. 


1  See  genealogical  table. 

8  His  Italian  nickname,  because  of  his  red  beard. 


Belonging  to  the  Empire 
Belonging'  to  the  Pope 
Belonging  to  the  Normans 


10      Longitude     Bast    12    from      Greenwich    14 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  189 

almost  independent.     In  the  south  the  Normans  had  built 
up  a  strong  kingdom,  which  they  held  as  vassals  of  the 
Pope,  and  not  of  the  emperor.     In  Eome  the 
nobles  had  set  up  a  commune  under  the  di- 
rection of  Arnold  of  Brescia,  and  the  Pope  was 
a  fugitive  from  his  capital.     It  was  necessary  for  Frederick 
to   assert   his  rights  vigorously  and  without  delay,  if  he 
wished  to  retain  Italy  as  a  part  of  his  empire. 

His  first  expedition  to  Italy,  in  1154-55,  was  undertaken 
to  aid  the  Pope  to  secure  Rome,  and  to  obtain  the  imperial 
crown  for  himself.  He  was  crowned  King  of 
Italy  at  Pavia,  and  Emperor  at  Eome ;  Arnold 
of  Brescia  was  seized  and  burned  at  the  stake ; 
but  the  emperor  was  forced  to  retreat  hurriedly,  as  his  army 
was  suffering  from  diseases  caused  by  the  intense  heat. 
Furthermore,  Frederick  and  the  Pope  had  disagreed,  be- 
cause the  former  was  not  willing  to  take  the  same  subordi- 
nate position  with  regard  to  the  papacy  that  his  immediate 
predecessors  had  done.  A  little  later  the  Pope,  Adrian  IV, 
in  writing  to  Frederick,  referred  to  the  leneficia  which  he 
had  bestowed  upon  the  latter.  This  term  in  feudal  usage 
meant  benefices  or  fiefs,  and  was  so  translated  by  the  Ger- 
man chancellor.  Frederick  was  indignant,  as  he  inter- 
preted the  phrase  to  mean  that  the  Pope  considered  the 
empire  a  fief  of  the  papacy.  An  open  conflict  was  avoided, 
as  the  Pope  explained  that  he  had  used  the  word  merely  in 
its  general  meaning  of  "  benefits."  But  the  incident  in- 
creased the  latent  hostility  between  the  two  powers,  and 
showed  that  Frederick  was  not  willing  to  recognize  the 
Pope  as  his  superior. 

On  his  second  Italian  expedition,  in  1158,  Frederick 
held  a  great  diet  on  the  Roncalian  plain,1  at  which  repre- 
sentatives of  all  the  Lombard  cities  were  present.  Over- 
awed by  the  emperor's  power,  the  cities  submitted  to  his 

1  East  of  Piacenza,  Italy. 


190  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

demands.  He  claimed  all  the  imperial  rights  of  govern- 
ment and  taxation  which  had  been  usurped  by  the  cities ; 
Frederick  and  prohibited  private  wars  between  the  latter,  and 
the  Lombard  appointed  an  official  called  "podesta"  in  each 
city  to  represent  the  imperial  authority  and 
to  administer  justice.  Frederick's  purpose  was  to  destroy 
the  independence  of  the  cities  and  to  subject  them  to  his 
own  power.  Milan  refused  to  receive  his  podesta,  was  con- 
quered by  him  after  a  two  years'  siege,  and  was  destroyed 
(1162)  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  cities  who,  jeal- 
ous of  its  prosperity,  had  aided  the  emperor.  Frederick 
hoped  that  the  fate  of  Milan  would  crush  all  opposition. 

In  the  meantime  Adrian  had  died  and  Alexander  III 
became  Pope.  As  the  emperor's  supporters  knew  that  Al- 
exander would  oppose  their  policy,  they  chose 
£j£ Lombard  an  anti_p0pe.  Alexander  excommunicated 
Frederick,  made  an  alliance  with  the  Lombard 
cities,  and  encouraged  them  to  form  a  defensive  league 
against  the  emperor.  Thus  far  the  cities  had  been  weak 
because  they  had  been  disunited,  and  some  had  been  glad  to 
see  the  ruin  of  rivals,  even  when  it  entailed  a  loss  of  liberty 
on  their  own  part.  But  the  emperor's  policy  was  so  impar- 
tial, subjugating  both  friendly  and  hostile  cities  to  his 
authority,  that  almost  all  were  ready  to  unite  against  him. 
In  1167  he  led  an  enormous  army  into  Italy  and  captured 
Rome ;  but  this  army  was  almost  destroyed  by  the  plague, 
and  he  had  difficulty  in  getting  back  safely.  This  disaster 
encouraged  his  opponents,  so  that  in  1168  almost  all  the 
cities  joined  in  the  Lombard  League. 

For  some  years  Frederick  was  occupied  in  Germany. 
Milan  was  rebuilt,  and  regained  its  power.  In  1176  the 
emperor  attempted  to  conquer  it  again,  and 
wag  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Legnano.  He 
realized  that  further  efforts  would  be  fruitless, 
and  made  peace  with  the  Pope  and  the  cities,  recognizing  the 
right  of  the  latter  to  self-government  in  almost  all  matters, 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  191 

although  they  still  paW.  taxes  to  him  and  he  retained  a 
shadowy  overlordship.  JjVom  this  time  the  Lombard  cities 
were  practically  independent. 

The  emperor's  absorption  in  his  Italian  difficulties  had 
enabled  the  Guelf  party  to  build  up  a  strong  power  in  north- 
ern Germany  under  the  leadership  of  Henry 
Frederick  and  the  Lion<  The  latter  consolidated  all  the  Guelf 
possessions,  and  also  followed  the  traditional 
policy  of  the  Saxon  dukes  in  extending  his  dominion  over 
the  lands  to  the  north  and  east.  The  heathen  inhabitants 
were  converted ;  towns  founded,  of  which  Liibeck  was  the 
most  important ;  and  bishoprics  were  established.  At  first 
Frederick  and  Henry  had  been  on  good  terms,  but  the  latter 
refused  to  help  Frederick  in  his  campaigns  against  the 
Lombard  League.  After  the  emperor  had  made  peace 
with  the  Lombards  he  determined  to  humble  Henry,  whose 
power  in  Germany  was  almost  as  great  as  his  own.  A  pre- 
text was  furnished  by  the  complaints  of  Saxon  bishops,  who 
accused  Henry  of  usurping  their  possessions.  The  latter, 
refusing  to  obey  the  imperial  summons  for  a  trial,  was  ban- 
ished and  his  duchies  confiscated.  By  granting  conces- 
sions to  the  lesser  nobles  in  Henry's  fief  the  emperor  won 
sufficient  support  to  conquer  Saxony,  and  Henry  was  forced 
to  submit  (1181).  He  was  banished  for  three  years,  and 
lost  all  his  possessions  except  Brunswick  and  Limeburg. 
Bavaria  was  given  to  the  Wittelsbach  family,  which  has 
held  it  ever  since,  and  his  other  lands  were  divided.  Thus 
the  danger  of  the  separation  of  Germany  into  two  king- 
doms, a  northern  and  a  southern,  was  averted. 

In  spite  of  his  defeat  in  Italy,  Frederick  had  succeeded  in 
reviving  the  glory  of  the  empire,  and  had  established  order  in 
Frederick's  Germany.  By  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  of 
power  as  upper  Burgundy  he  became  king  of  that  coun- 

try. He  forced  the  king  of  Bohemia  to  acknowl- 
edge him  as  overlord  (1158).  He  negotiated  the  marriage 
of  his  heir,  Henry,  with  the  heiress  of  the  king  of  Sicily 


HENRY  THE  LION.  MATILDA,  WIFE  OF  HENRY  THE  LION. 

(From  their  tombs  in  the  Cathedral  of  Brunswick.) 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  193 

in  order  to  unite  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  to  the  empire. 
He  drew  vast  resources  from  his  own  ducal  dominions  and 
from  the  Italian  cities.  By  concessions  in  favor  of  the 
lesser  German  nobles,  he  obtained  their  support  and  was 
able  to  raise  great  armies.  His  power  was  so  firmly  estab- 
lished that  he  felt  safe  in  leaving  Germany  for  the  crusade, 
during  which  he  died  (1190)X 

His  eldest  son  Henry  Imcceeded  him  without  opposition 
and  added  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  to  his  dominions  in  1194. 
As  the  Lombard  cities,  freed  from  direct  im- 
perial control,  were  again  engaged  in  warfare 
iibu  iiy /i 

with  one  another,  the  emperor  used  one  party 

against  the  other  and  secured  "money  from  both.  Eichard 
the  Lion-hearted  of  England,  who  had  fallen  into  captivity 
in  Germany  on  his  return  from  the  crusade,  was  retained 
until  he  became  the  vassal  of  the  emperor  and  paid  an  enor- 
mous ransom.  Henry,  dreaming  of  universal  dominion,  was 
preparing  for  a  crusade  to  subjugate  the  East,  when  a  sud- 
den illness  caused  his  death. 

Henry's  son  Frederick  had  been  crowned  king,  but  was 
only  three  years  old  when  his  father  died;  consequently 
his  claims  were  set  aside.     His  uncle  Philip1 

was  chosen  bJ  the  Ghibelline  party;  Otto  IV, 
son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  by  the  Guelfs.  For  ten 
years  Germany  was  devastated  by  a  war  between  the  rival 
claimants,  in  which  the  nobles^  became  virtually  independ- 
ent. Philip  was  murdered  in  ftoB.  Otto,  who  had  been  sup- 
ported by  the  Pope,  was  then  recognized  by  all  as  sovereign. 
As  emperor  he  soon  became  hostile  to  the  Pope,  who  set  up 
a  rival  king  in  the  person  of  Frederick,  son  of  Henry  VI. 

The  latter,  as  king  of  Sicily,  had  been  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  Pope  Innocent  III.  His  childhood  had  been  spent 
in  the  midst  of  war,  and  his  kingdom  had  been  preserved 

1  He  styled  himself  Philip  II  because  Philip  the  Arabian,  the  third- 
century  Roman  emperor,  had  been  Philip  I. 


194 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


121^-125  Q1' 


only  by  the  zealous  care  of  the  Pope.  Now  Innocent,  after 
compelling  him  to  take  an  oath  never  to  unite  the  king- 
doms of  Sicily  and  Germany,  secured  his  elec- 
^on  ^  ^6  German  nobles  who  were  opposed 
to  Otto.  The  hopes  of  the  latter  were  crushed 
by  the  battle  of  Bouvines,1  where  he  and  his  uncle  John  of 
England  were  defeated  by  Philip  Augustus  and  the  parti- 
zans  of  Frederick.  The  deaths  of  both  Otto  and  Innocent 
secured  the  kingdom  for  Frederick  and  left  him  free. 

In  spite  of  his  oath,  he  felt  it  necessary  to  keep  both 
Sicily  and  Germany.      If  Innocent  had  lived,  he  would 
not  have  been  able  to  do  this  without  serious 
opposition.     Innocent's  successor,  influenced 
by  Frederick's  vow  to  go  on  a  crusade  and  his 

fair  promises,  made 
no  objection  to 
crowning  him  em- 
peror and  allowing 
him  to  retain  Sicily. 
Frederick's  policy 
was  to  draw  money 
from  Sicily  and  sol- 
diers from  Germany 
to  maintain  his  im- 
perial position.  He 
organized  in  his 
southern  kingdom  a 
strong  centralized 
government  in  place 
of  the  former  feudal 
administration.  He 

encouraged  commerce,  granted  toleration  to  Mohammedans 
and  Jews,  established  the  University  of  Naples,  and  pub- 
lished a  new  code  of  laws  more  modern  in  spirit  than  any  pre- 


SEAL  OF  THE  WIDOW  OF  OTTO  IV. 


1  See  page  211. 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  195 

ceding  code.     The  country  prospered  under  his  strict  rule, 
and  literature  and  the  arts  nourished  under  his  patronage. 
In  Germany  he  followed  the  traditional  Hohenstaufen 
policy  of  buying  support  by   granting   privileges  to   the 
nobles,  and  thus  weakened  the   central  government.     In 

the  last  years  of  his  reign  he  gave  charters  to 
Frederick  II  fae  more  important  cities  also,  in  order  to 
and  Germany,  *-,••,  -  ,  •  i  • 

secure  their  assistance  against  the   anti-kings 

who  were  elected  by  his  opponents.  As  a  whole,  he  was  little 
interested  in  Germany,  and  made  it  entirely  subordinate  to 
his  Italian  projects.  Consequently  he  allowed  his  adherents 
almost  entire  independence  on  their  German  fiefs  as  long  as 
they  furnished  him  aid  when  demanded.  Whatever  unity 
Germany  had  secured  under  the  Franconian  emperors  was 
lost  under  the  Hohenstaufens,  and  the  country  became 
divided  into  many  separate  units,  some  of  which  were 
duchies  or  counties,  some  bishoprics,  and  some  free  cities. 

In  order  to  arrange  matters  in  his  two  kingdoms,  Fred- 
erick postponed  his  crusade  repeatedly.     The  Pope  tried 
to  make  him  fulfil  his  vow  and  threatened  ex- 
Frederick's         communication ;  but  he  secured  delays  by  re- 
crusade,  .  '  -  -, 
assuring  promises  and  by  representing  the  need 

of  his  presence  in  the  West.  When  the  pacific  Honorius  was 
succeeded  by  Gregory  IX,  the  emperor  found  it  necessary 
to  embark  for  Syria  in  order  to  avoid  excommunication. 
Within  a  few  days  he  turned  back  on  account  of  illness,  as 
he  alleged.  Gregory  at  once  excommunicated  him,  and 
when  he  did  set  out  again,  renewed  the  ban  because  he  had 
undertaken  a  crusade  while  excommunicated.  The  Pope 
also  sent  an  army  to  invade  Sicily.  When  Frederick  re- 
turned, he  drove  out  the  papal  troops  and  succeeded  in 
making  his  peace  with  the  Pope. 

His  power  was  increasing  rapidly,  and  was  a  menace  to 
both  the  Pope  and  the  Lombard  cities,  whose  dominions 
were  surrounded  by  his  German  and  Italian  possessions. 
The  latter,  fearing  that  he  might  attempt  to  destroy  their 


196  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

independence,  renewed  the  Lombard  League  and  showed 
themselves  openly  hostile  to  him.  Frederick  attacked 
Frederick  II  them  with  an  army  composed  of  Swabian 
and  the  knights,  and  Mohammedan  horsemen  from  his 

Lombard  cities,  Sicilian  kingdom,  inflicted  a  crashing  defeat  at 
Cortenuova,  in  1237,  and  organized  a  strong  government  in 
northern  Italy. 

All  Italy,  except  the  papal  states,  was  now  in  his  power, 
and  it  seemed  evident  that  he  would  soon  attack  these. 
Excomnnmica-  GregorJ  viewed  the  emperor's  triumph  with 
tionof  alarm,  and  when  Frederick  refused  to  give  up 

Frederick,  Sardinia,  which  was  claimed  as  a  papal  fief, 
placed  him  under  excommunication  and  released  his  sub- 
jects from  their  oath  of  allegiance.  Frederick  retorted  by 
conquering  most  of  the  papal  territory.  The  death  of 
Gregory,  in  1241,  caused  a  truce.  During  these  years 
Frederick  attempted  to  establish  in  his  dominions  a  na- 
tional church  of  which  he,  and  not  the  Pope,  should  be  the 
head.  His  plan  was  somewhat  similar  to  that  followed 
later  by  Henry  VIII  of  England.  Pope  Innocent  IV  re- 
newed the  excommunication,  in  1245,  and  caused  an  anti- 
king  to  be  elected  in  Germany. 

Frederick  and  his  son  Conrad  were  successful  in  Ger- 
many.    The  real  danger  was  in  Italy,  where  the  Lombard 
cities  again  took  the  offensive  and  won  a  great 
Defeat  of  victory.     Frederick  met  with   other  reverses, 

and  even  in  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  his  despot- 
ism caused  conspiracies  to  be  formed.  In  the  midst  of  his 
struggles  he  was  taken  ill  and  died. 

Frederick  was  called  "  the  wonder  of  the  world."    He 
had  been  carefully  educated,  and  delighted  in  the  society 
of  learned  men.     He  was  versed  in  many  Ian- 
Character  of       guages,  and  was  regarded  by  Dante  as  the  fa- 
ther of  Italian  poetry.     He  was  fond  of  natural 
history,  and  composed  a  treatise  on  falconry  which  shows  his 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  subject.     He  was  a  free-thinker, 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  197 

outwardly  devoted  to  the  Christian  religion,  but  really  a 
skeptic  about  all  religions.  In  many  respects  he  preferred 
Mohammedan  customs,  and  in  his  later  years  spent  his 
leisure  in  a  Moslem  colony  which  he  had  founded  in  south- 
ern Italy,  where  he  maintained  a  harem.  In  many  respects 
he  was  far  in  advance  of  his  age,  as  is  proved  by  his  laws, 
in  which  medieval  customs  were  discarded  and  modern 
ideas  introduced.  Dante  regarded  the  period  of  Frederick's 
greatest  power  as  the  golden  age  of  Italy. 

His  successors  were  unable  to  withstand  their  combined 

enemies,  and  their  rule  ceased  in  Germany  with  the  death 

of  Conrad  IV,  in  1254.     Then  succeeded  a  pe- 

Fallofthe         riod  of  «irist_iaw,"  when  there  was  no  central 

nouenstauteus. 

government  and  each  portion  of  the  country 
had  to  keep  peace  and  defend  itself  as  best  it  could.  The 
Germans,  experiencing  disasters  under  inefficient  rulers} 
sighed  for  the  days  when  the  Hohenstaufens  had  ruled, 
and  their  longing  later  found  expression  in  the  legend  of 
the  sleeping  Barbarossa.  In  parts  of  Italy,  Frederick's 
descendants  retained  some  powers  until  1268,  when  the 
young  Conradin  fell  into  the  hands  of  Charles  of  Anjou 
and  was  beheaded  at  Naples. 

From  this  time  the  peninsula  of  Italy  was  almost  wholly 
free  from  any  control  by  the  emperors.  In  the  north  the 
cities  engaged  in  civil  wars  which  resulted  in 
the  rise  of  city-states  controlling  the  adjacent 
towns  and  villages.  Of  these  the  most  important  were 
Venice,  Milan,  Florence,  Pisa,  and  Genoa.  The  center 
of  the  peninsula  formed  the  papal  states  governed  by  the 
Pope.  In  the  south  the  French  house  of  Anjou  estab- 
lished the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  Sicily  was  conquered  by 
Aragon.  Thus  the  whole  of  Italy  was  divided  into  sep- 
arate states,  which  were  destined  to  remain  disunited  until 
the  last  third  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  Hohenstaufen  policy  had  been  fatal  to  the  cause 
of  Germany  unity.     In  order  to  secure  men  and  supplies, 
14 


198  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

the  emperors  had  granted  away  almost  all  of  the  imperial 
prerogatives.  As  they  wished  to  lessen  the  power  of  the 
great  nobles,  they  had  made  many  knights  and 
cities  immediate  vassals  of  the  empire.  Conse- 
quently, when  the  imperial  authority  was  not 
exercised,  all  of  the  immediate  vassals,  princes,  bishops, 
knights,  cities,  and  even  villages  claimed  to  be  independ- 
ent. Many  of  the  weaker  were  forced  to  submit,  but  the 
total  number  of  independent  cities  and  knights  was  very 
large. 

Their  independence  was  fostered  by  the  double  election 
after  the  death  of  Conrad  IV.  Two  rivals  were  chosen  by 
The  interreg-  opposing  parties ;  one  was  the  English  Eichard 
num  (1256-  of  Cornwall,  brother  of  King  Henry  III ;  the 
other,  King  Alfonso  X  of  Castile.1  Neither 
one  exercised  any  real  power ;  Eichard  spent  but  little 
time  in  Germany,  and  Alfonso  never  visited  it.  Each  one, 
in  order  to  gain  support,  granted  privileges  and  lands  to 
nobles,  bishops,  or  cities  whose  aid  he  wished  to  gain 
The  last  semblance  of  imperial  authority  was  lost,  and  all 
imperial  domains  passed  into  private  hands.  This  was  the 
period  of  "  Fist-law  "  already  referred  to.  Eichard  died  in 
1272. 

The  electors 2  felt  it  necessary  to  choose  a  king,  but  did 
not  desire  a  strong  monarch  who  would  take  away  any  of 

1  The  election  of  a  Spanish  and  an  English  emperor  was  due  to  the 
theory — never  in  accordance  with  the  facts — that  the  empire  embraced 
all  Christian  Europe,  and  consequently  any  prince  was  eligible  to  the 
throne. 

2  Originally  the  king  was  elected  by  all  the  freemen.     Gradually 
this  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  chief  nobles.     In  the  thirteenth 
century  seven  of  the   most  powerful   princes  claimed   this   right  of 
choice.     There  was  some  dispute  as  to  the  seven  who  should  constitute 
the  electoral  college,  hut  in  1856.  by  the  Golden  Bull  of  Charles  IV, 
the  following1  were  designated:  the  Archbishops  of  Mainz,  Treves  and 
Cologne,  the  King  of  Bohemia,  the  Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the 
Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg. 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  199 

their  own  power.  Their  choice  accordingly  fell  upon  Ru- 
dolf,  the  "  pauper  count "  of  Hapsburg.  His  position  was 
Election  of  a  very  difficult  one,  as  he  secured  by  election 
Rudolf  of  no  domain  lands  and  little  real  authority. 

Hapsburg,  Moreover,  Alfonso  of  Castile  still  claimed  the 
title,  and  the  king  of  Bohemia,  who  had  not  been  con- 
sulted about  the  election,  was  openly  hostile  to  Eudolf. 
In  order  to  gain  the  support  of  the  Pope,  he  confirmed  all 
previous  grants  of  Italian  lands  to  the  Holy  See,  and  made 
no  attempt  to  enforce  his  claim  to  the  kingdom  of  Sicily. 
His  policy  was  to  add  to  his  family  possessions  in  Germany. 
As  the  king  of  Bohemia  remained  hostile,  Rudolf  attacked 
him  and  succeeded  in  conquering  Austria,  which  had  been 
annexed  to  Bohemia.  This  was  his  only  great  success,  and 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Hapsburg  family  in 
Austria,  where  their  rule  has  lasted  until  the  present  day. 
At  his  death  the  electors  refused  to  choose  his  son,  and 
selected  another  weak  noble.  Their  unwillingness  to  elect 

a  strong  candidate  prevented  the  monarchy  in 
emperors,  Qermany  from  becoming  hereditary,  as  it  had 
done  in  France.  Each  emperor  tried  to  aggrandize  his  own 
family  and  to  add  to  his  domains.  Outside  of  his  immedi- 
ate possessions  no  ruler  was  strong,  and  Germany  continued 
to  be  divided  into  many  independent  states,  some  of  large 
size,  others  with  a  few  hundred  acres  only  under  their 
control. 

Among  the  richest  of  the  villages  which  claimed  to  be 
independent  of  all  powers  except  the  emperor,  were  the 

SwissUri,  Schwyz  and Unterwalden,  on  the  Lake 
Confederation      °^  Lucerne.     These  had  been  originally  in  the 

duchy  of  Swabia,  and  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  be- 
fore he  became  emperor,  attempted  to  subjugate  them, 
together  with  the  rest  of  the  duchy,  to  his  sway.  For- 
tunately for  the  little  Swiss  cantons,  of  which  these  vil- 
lages were  the  centers,  Rudolf's  election  turned  his  am- 
'bition  in  other  directions,  and  they  remained  free.  The 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY  20i 

next  emperor,  who  was  opposed  to  the  Hapsburg  claims, 
protected  them  for  some  years.  In  1315,  when  the  Haps- 
burg count  finally  sent  a  force  against  them,  it  was  cut  to 
pieces  by  the  Swiss  confederates  in  the  battle  of  Morgarten. 
This  success,  and  the  growing  desire  for  independence,  led 
five  other  cantons *  to  join  them,  thus  forming  the  Swiss 
Confederation.2  The  common  danger  of  attack  by  a  pow- 
erful foe  caused  the  cantons  to  forget  local  jealousies  and 
differences.  The  great  attempt  to  subjugate  them  to  the 
Hapsburg  power  was  thwarted  by  the  battle  of  Sempach, 
in  1386,  and  three  years  later  the  confederated  cantons 
were  acknowledged  to  be  independent  except  for  their  alle- 
giance to  the  emperor.  In  their  wars  the  Swiss  had  proved 
themselves  the  best  infantry  in  Europe,  and  their  services 
were  sought  as  mercenaries  by  the  other  nations. 

In  the  north  of  Germany  the  cities  were  becoming  very 

wealthy  by  trade.   The  weakness  of  the  central  government, 

and  the  privileges  which  they  had  secured,  made 

Lea  uen8eatiC  them  indePendent-  The  towns  along the  Baltic 
profited  especially  by  the  fisheries,  as  herring 
came  thither  each  year  in  countless  numbers.  The  perils 
of  the  sea  and  the  dangers  from  robbers  led  these  towns  to 
unite  for  protection.  When  they  formed  such  a  union  it 
was  known  as  a  hansa,  or  hanse.3  The  most  important 
hanse  was  formed  by  the  union '  of  Hamburg  and  Lubeck, 
which  was  entered  into  for  the  protection  of  the  road  be- 
tween the  two  cities.  Gradually  other  towns  joined  in  order 
to  secure  protection  for  their  trade,  until  at  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourteenth  century  the  association  became 
known  as  the  Hanseatic  League.  At  first  the  purposes 
were  wholly  commercial,  but  their  interests  and  the  neces- 

1  Lucerne,  1320;  Zurich,  1351 ;  Glarus  and  Zug,  1352 ;  Bern,  1353. 

8  The  legend  of  William  Tell  and  the  oath  of  Riithli  are  wholly 
fabulous. 

3  Hanse  was  a  common  term  for  associations  formed  for  commercial 
purposes. 


202  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

sities  of  common  defense  led  them  to  undertake  combined 
military  operations  against  Denmark.  For  a  time  during 
the  early  fifteenth  century  this  league  was  the  most  im- 
portant power  in  the  north.  It  was  ruined  by  the  depart- 
ure of  the  herring,  which  left  the  Baltic,  and  by  the  great 
geographical  discoveries  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which 
gave  the  commercial  advantage  to  other  nations.1 

The  sphere  of  German  influence  was  greatly  extended 

in  the  northeast  by  the  efforts  of  the  Teutonic  Order.    This 

had  been  founded  at  the  siege  of  Acre,  during 

the  third  crusade,  and  had  been  confirmed  in 

1191  by  the  Pope.     For  a  time  its  knights  served  in  the 

Holy  Land,  but  in  1231  transferred  their  activity  to  the 

lands  along  the  Baltic  which  were  still  held  by  the  heathen 

Slavs.   In  a  half  century  they  had  conquered  all  of  Prussia,2 

and  there  they  maintained  their  power  until  the  middle  of 

the  fifteenth  century.3 

Much  later  the  lands  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  which  had 
become  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  were  transferred  to  the  Ho- 
henzollern  Frederick,  margrave  of  Brandenburg.  From 
that  time  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Prussia  were  held  by  the 
elector  of  Brandenburg,  until  in  the  eighteenth  centtiry 
his  title  was  changed  to  king  " in  Prussia/'  jl  Qu  vlok 

K^J^    ft     ~9 

KEFERENCES  ,  I  [  [^ 

Tout :  Empire  and  Papacy,  chaps,  xi,  xvi.  Lodge :  Close  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  chaps,  i,  vii,  xviii.  Henderson:  History  of  Germany 
(London,  1894),  chaps,  xxvii,  xxviii.  Bryce:  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
chaps,  xi,  xiii.  Adams:  Civilisation  During  the  Middle  Ages,  pp. 
247-257,  356-361.  Emerton:  Medieval  Europe,  chaps,  ix,  x. 

1  Some  cities,  like  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Lubeck  retained,  until 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  name  of  hanse  towns,  but  only  as  a  symbol 
of  freedom,  not  of  association. 

2  Not  the  modern  Prussia.     See  Map. 

8  Their  later  history  is  to  be  found  in  the  history  of  the  rise  of  Bran- 
denburg and  the  growth  of  Poland. 


GERMANY  AND  ITALY 


203 


GUELFS 


HOHENSTAUFENS 


Welf  IV, 

tllOl. 

I 

Henry  the  Black, 
+1126,  D.  of  Bavaria. 


Frederick  of  Swabia, 
+1105  =  Agnes,  d.  HENRY  IV. 


Henry  the  Proud, 
tl!39  =  d.  LOTHAIR. 

Henry  the  Lion,  +1195 


Welf  VI, 
+1191. 


Ju 


dith  = 


Frederick, 

+1147. 


CONRAD  III, 

+1152. 


FREDERICK 


=  d.  Henry  I] 

1 

[  of  Euglanc 

I. 

Henry,        Frederick, 
I                      +1150.              +1167. 

OTTO  IV, 
t!218  =  d.  of 
PHILIP. 

William. 
Otto. 

HENRY  VI, 
+1197. 
I 
FREDERICK  II, 

+1250. 
I 

Frederick,        PHILIP  II, 
+1191.               +1208. 
1 

Beatrix  =                Beatrix  = 
OTTO  IV.             Ferdinand  III 

Henry, 

+1242. 

1 
CONRAD 

+1254. 

I 
IV,    Margaret, 

+1270. 

I                        j                of  Castile. 
Enzio,           Manfred, 
+1272.               +1266.             AlfonsoX 

Conradin, 

+1268. 


Constantia  = 
Pedro  III  of  Aragon. 


NOTE.—  =,  married  ;  D.,  duke  ;  d.,  daughter.    Names  of  emperors  in  capitals. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
France  (1108-1314) 

IN"  Germany  feudalism  triumphed  over  the  monarchy ; 
the  centralized  government  was  weakened  by  repeated  con- 
cessions to  the  nobles,  until  the  king  became 
between  merely  the  nominal  suzerain,  while  all  the  real 

Germany  and  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  vassals.  In 
France,  the  king  in  the  eleventh  century  was 
a  baron  with  no  effective  power  outside  of  his  own  fiefs. 
In  three  centuries  the  kingship  had  shaken  off  its  feudal 
bonds  and  had  become  a  centralized  government.  The 
first  four  Capetian  monarchs  did  little  more  than  retain 
the  title  of  king  for  their  family;  their  possessions  were 
less  extensive  than  some  of  the  fiefs  held  by  their  vassals. 
From  this  humble  origin  the  kingdom  grew,  until,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  included  almost  all 
of  Tmodern  France. 

The  Capetian  rulers  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies were  occupied  with  two  great  tasks :  first,  that  of 
Two  tasks  of  bringing  all  the  fiefs  in  France  under  their 
the  French  direct  rule  ;  secondly,  that  of  superseding  the 
feudal  usages  by  monarchical  institutions. 
Their  success  was  due  to  the  fact  that  they  moved  slowly, 
attempting  no  rash  innovations,  and  did  not  take  any 
action  which  was  not  a  natural  outgrowth  of  existing 
customs.  They  took  away  gradually  many  rights  from 
their  vassals,  but  they  did  it  by  following  feudal  usages, 
and  by  claiming  these  rights  as  overlords.  A  part  of  their 
success  was  due  to  the  ability  of  the  individual  rulers, 
204 


FRANCE  (1108-1314)  205 

especially  Philip  Augustus  and  Louis  IX ;  in  fact,  Louis 
VII  is  the  only  one  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century 
kings  who  can  be  called  weak,  and  his  weakness  would  be 
less  apparent  if  he  Lad  not  succeeded  Louis  VI  and  been 
followed  by  Philip  Augustus. 

Many  circumstances,  of  which  they  took  full  advantage, 

aided  in  establishing  their  power.     Most  prominent  of  all 

was  the  fact  that  the  kingship  gradually  be- 

Pavoringcir-  ,          ,          ,..  T      ,,  ,. 

cumstancesj       came  recognized  as  hereditary.     In  the  earlier 
hereditary         centuries  it  had  been,  like  the  German,  elect- 
ive.    More  fortunate  than  the  German  kings, 
each  Capetian,  for  three  centuries, 
had  a  son  to   succeed   him.     Each 
of    the    earlier    monarchs    had    his 
son    elected    associate  -  king   during 
his  own  life.     In  the  time  of  Philip 
Augustus  the  hereditary  succession 
was-   so    fully    recognized    that    he 
did  not  feel  it  necessary  to  continue 
the  custom.    When  Louis  VIII  died, 
fci   1226,  his   son,  although    only   a      SEAL  OF  THE  ClTY  op 
child,  was  recognized  without  hesi-  PARIS. 

tation. 

The  king  was  aided  by  the  rise  of  communes  and  the 
growth  in  importance  of  the  non-noble  classes,  because  the 
latter  desired  peace  and  order  above  all  else.  Xot 
merely tneir  prosperity,  but  their  very  safety,  de- 
pended upon  the  suppression  of  private  warfare 
and  feudal  exactions.  The  king  could  count  upon  assist- 
ance and  money  from  them,  if  needed  to  check  disorder. 
Moreover,  the  study  of  law  at  the  universities  was  educat- 
ing a  large  number  of  laymen  from  the  middle  class,  who 
entered  the  royal  service  and  superseded  the  nobles  as  the 
king's  agents. 

The  French  monarchs  profited  also  by  the  misfortunes 
of  their  vassals.    Throughout  the  country  all  the  petty  fiefs 


206  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

were  being  absorbed  into  a  few  great  fiefs ;  two  of  the  most 
important  of  these  were  Normandy  and  Toulouse.  As  the 

duke  of  Normandy  was  the  king  of  England, 
vassals^  °  the  civil  wars  in  the  latter  country  enabled  the 

French  king  to  annex  Normandy  to  the  royal 
possessions.  The  Albigensian  crusade l  so  weakened  the 
count  of  Toulouse  that  he  was  forced  to  resign  most  of  his 
lands  to  the  king,  who  gradually  secured  almost  all  of  Lan- 
guedoc.  These  favoring  circumstances  were  utilized  skil- 
fully by  the  Capetians. 

This  work  was  done  so  methodically,  and  the  results 
were  so  striking,  that  modern  writers  are  apt  to  attribute 
Ste  sin  the  ^°  ^ie  ru^ers  a  conscious  plan  and  prophetic 
creation  of  spirit.  This  is  a  mistake.  The  individual 
France,  kings  were  frequently  led  by  their  personal 

feelings  into  actions  which  hindered  progress.  They  never 
planned  to  discard  the  feudal  usages  with  which  they  were 
familiar,  in  order  to  try  experiments  in  statecraft.  Yet, 
from  the  vantage-ground  of  the  twentieth  century,  it  is 
easy  to  trace  out  the  steps  by  which  the  suzerains  of  the 
territory  immediately  about  Paris  became  the  monarchs  of 
France.  They  established  their  rule  firmly  in  the  duchy 
of  France.  They  drew  into  their  employ  men  of  humble 
birth,  whose  fortunes  were  wholly  dependent  upon  the 
king,  and  thus  were  enabled  to  dispense  with  the  services 
of  their  barons.  They  acquired  one  fief  after  another, 
until  their  domain  included  the  whole  kingdom.  They 
developed  a  royal  army,  so  that  they  were  not  wholly 
dependent  upon  the  military  forces  of  their  vassals.  They 
established  royal  courts  of  justice,  which  gradually  ab- 
sorbed the  business  of  the  baronial  courts.  They  organized 
a  national  system  of  finance,  which  made  them  independent 
of  feudal  contributions.  Some  of  these  processes  were 
going  on  simultaneously. 

1  See  page  177. 


II 


FRANCE  (1108-1314)  207 


mis  VI  reduced  to  obedience  the  rebellious  vassals  in 
the  duchy  of  France.  He  had  been  elected  associate  king  in 

1100,  and  because  of  the  weakness  of  his  father 
1108-1137,  ke  ka(l  assume(i  the  task  of  repressing  disorder, 

and  conducted  many  campaigns  against  his  vas- 
sals. No  one  of  these  is  important  in  itself,  but  the  defeat 
of  one  vassal  after  another  finally  made  the  king  supreme 
in  his  own  domain.  He  burned  many  of  the  castles  which 


CHARTER  OF  ST.  Louis,  WITH  SEALS. 

were  held  by  robber-barons,  who  had  made  it  impossible  for 
the  king  to  travel  in  his  own  fief  unless  he  was  accom- 
panied by  an  armed  band.  He  protected  the  clergy  and 
the  poor  against  the  exactions  of  the  nobles.  His  chief 
minister  was  Suger,  a  monk  of  humble  birth. 

During  the  reign  of  Louis  VII  little  progress  was  made. 
In  his  early  years  he  continued  the  policy  of  his  father  in 
the  duchy.     He  also  attempted  to  establish  his 
1137-1180,       authority  in  Aquitaine,  which  he  had  acquired 
by  marrying  the  heiress,  Eleanor.  This  marriage, 
arranged  by  Louis  VI,  had  more  than  doubled  the  possessions 
of  the  king.  His  real  troubles  began  when  he  went  on  the  sec- 
ond crusade.  During  his  absence  the  barons  became  powerful. 


208  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

and  when  he  returned  he  had  to  take  up  again  the  task  of 
establishing  order  in  his  duchy.  He  lost  Aquitaine  when 
le  obtained  a  divorce  from  Eleanor.  She  had  long  despised 
her  husband  on  account  of  his  piety,  which  was  in  strong 
contrast  with  her  own  character.  She  hastened  to  marry 
his  enemy,  Henry  of  Anjou,  who  already  held  Normandy, 
Anjou,  Maine,  and  Touraine.  By  this  marriage  Henry 
became  more  powerful  -than  Louis ;  his  possessions  in 
France  were  about  six  times  as  large  as  those  under  the 
immediate  power  of  the  French  king,  and  in  addition  he 
soon  became  king  of  England.  Almost  all  the  remainder 
of  Louis's  reign  was  spent  in  wars  against  Henry.  Probably 
the  latter's  struggle  with  Thomas  Becket  *  saved  Louis  from 
defeat. 

Philip  II  was  only  fifteen  years  of  age  when  he  became 
king.  His  strength  of  character  and  ability,  however,  were 
so  marked  that  he  soon  took  the  reins  of  govern- 
men^  in*°  h^  own  hands.  He  was  the  very  man 
needed  to  release  the  French  monarchy  from  its 
dangerous  position.  He  was  shrewd  and  diplomatic;  he 
took  advantage  of  every  opportunity  offered  by  his  oppo- 
nents and  used  every  other  means  to  increase  his  own 
power ;  he  could  conceal  his  feelings  so  successfully  that 
no  one  could  tell  what  he  really  intended  to  do. 

The  great  task  of  his  reign  was  to  weaken  the' power  in 
France  of  the  English  kings.     While  Henry  II  lived,  Philip 
incited  the   English  princes  to  rebel   against 
PWlipandthe     their  father>     He  aided  each  one  in  turn.    After 


Henry's  death,  in  1189,  had  made  Eichard  the 
Lion-hearted  king  of  England,  Philip  professed  the  greatest 
friendship  for  the  latter.  Their  intimacy,  however,  soon 
led  to  quarrels,  and  on  the  third  crusade  they  became  bit- 
ter enemies.  When  Eichard  was  in  captivity,  Philip  en- 
couraged John  of  England  to  rebel  and  joined  with  him  in 

1  See  page  217. 


CATHEDRAL,   AMIENS. 


,\     BAY        OF      B  I  &C  AY 


ENGLISH  POSSESSIONS 

TN 

FRANCE 

TIME  OF  HENRY  II 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


4°  Longitude  West  from  Greenwich    0° 


Longitude  East         4 


210  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

attempting  to  bribe  Henry  VI  of  Germany  to  ki  Richard 
in  prison.  After  the  release  of  the  latter  there  was  open 
war,  until  Eichard's  death  freed  Philip  from  the  danger  of 
being  conquered.  John's  misdeeds  gave  him  his  oppor- 
tunity, for  John  married  the  heiress  of  Angouleme,  who 
had  been  betrothed  to  one  of  his  own  vassals,  and,  more- 
over, he  was  suspected  of  having  murdered  his  nephew 
Arthur.  As  feudal  overlord  Philip  summoned  John  to  be 
tried  for  his  crimes.  The  latter  refused  to  obey  the  sum- 
mons, and  in  accordance  with  feudal  law  forfeited  the  fiefs 
which  he  held  from  the  French  king. 

Philip  took  possession  of  Normandy  (1203-'04)  and  most 
of  John's  other  possessions  in  France.     He  met  with  seri- 
ous opposition  at  only  two  or  three  castles,  as 
territory3  '        many   of  the   vassals   of   John  were   glad  to 
change  their  suzerain.     Philip   took  no   part 
personally  in  the  Albigensian  crusade,  but  watched  it  care- 
fully and  managed  matters  so  that  eventually  Languedoc 
became  the  property  of  his  descendants.     Other  fiefs  were 
added  by  his  shrewdness  and  diplomacy. 

While  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  was  in  captivity  Philip 
planned  an  invasion  of  England,  and  in  order  to  get  the 
assistance  of  the  Danish  fleet  he  married  a  Da- 
n^s^  Princess?  Ingeborg.  She  was  only  eighteen, 
virtuous  and  pretty.  The  very  day  after  the 
marriage  Philip  showed  a  great  aversion  to  her,  and  has- 
tened to  get  a  divorce,  alleging  falsely  that  she  was  related 
to  him.1  Ingeborg  and  her  relatives  appealed  to  the  Pope, 
who  pronounced  the  divorce  illegal,  and  commanded  Philip 
to  receive  her  as  his  wife.  Philip  refused,  kept  Ingeborg  a 
prisoner,  and  married  Agnes  of  Meran.  When  Innocent 
III  became  Pope  he  laid  an  interdict  upon  France  (1200) 
until  Philip  should  send  away  Agnes  and  take  back  Inge- 

1  By  the  canon  law  relatives  within  certain  degrees  were  forbidden 
to  marry. 


FEANCE  (1108-1314)  211 

'  org.  After  ie  months  Philip  pretended  to  yield,  but 
rhen  the  interdict  was  raised  he  still  refused  to  live  with 
ngeborg.  Agnes  died  in  1201,  but  the  unhappy  Ingeborg 
<ras  a  prisoner  for  twenty  years  in  all;  she  complained 
hat  she  was  not  given  sufficient  food  or  clothing.1  Finally, 
a  1213,  as  Philip  again  needed  the  help  of  Denmark, 
e  took  back  Ingeborg  and  treated  her  as  the  queen  of 
'ranee.  By  his  unexpected  submission  he  secured  the  aid 
f  Innocent  III. 

He  needed  this,  for  his  position  was  desperate.  John  of 
Cngland  had  succeeded  in  forming  a  coalition  with  the  rul- 
rs  of  Germany,  Holland,  and  Flanders,  and  by  their  assist- 
nce  hoped  to  regain  his  lost  provinces.  The  allies  planned 
,  double  attack  upon  France :  the  German  and  Flemish 
orces  were  to  invade  it  from  the  north,  while  the  English 
ttempted  to  reconquer  Poitou  and  march  upon  Paris.  John 
anded  at  La  Roclielle,  February  16, 1214,  and  was  welcomed 
>y  some  of  his  former  vassals.  While  Philip  went  to  meet 
he  enemy  in  the  north,  his  son  Louis  prevented  John 
from  conquering  Poitou.  The  allies  and  the 
French  engaged  battle  at  Bouvines,  where  the 
latter,  although  greatly  inferior  in  number, 
von  a  decisive  victory,  which  had  important  results  in 
hree  countries.  It  freed  the  king  of  France  from  his 
langers ;  in  Germany  it  decided  the  contest  between  Otto 
V  and  Frederick  II;2  in  England  it  gave  such  a  blow  to 
he  power  of  John  that  he  was  soon  obliged  to  sign  the 
Ireat  Charter.3 

Philip's  work  had  been  done  thoroughly,  so 
tnat  on  the  death  of  Louis  VIII  (1223-1226), 
the  latter's  son,  Louis  IX,  who  was  only  eleven, 
;ucceeded  to  the  throne  without  opposition.     During  the 
ong  minority,  the  nobles,  aided  by  Henry  III  of  England, 

1  The  reason  for  the  king's  dislike  and  cruelty  has  never  been  as- 
certained. 

2  See  page  194.  *  See  page  221. 


212 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


rebelled  repeatedly,  but  the  rebellions  were  easily  crushed. 
Then  followed  a  long  period  of  peace  in  which  Louis  gov- 
erned France  firmly  and  made  it  the  most 
important  country  in  Europe.  His  success 
was  due  chiefly  to  his  admirable  character ; 
he  was  pious,  just,  and  generous;  he  was 
so  honorable  that  his  arbitration  was  sought 
by  foreigners;  and  he  never  took  unfair 
advantage  of  a  defeated  foe.  He  delighted 
in  works  of  charity  and  piety,  fed  the  poor 
and  nursed  lepers  with  his  own  hands,  and 
could  never  endure  to  hear  profane  or 
vulgar  language.  His 
nobles  were  amazed  at 
his  devotion,  but  they 
respected  his  vigor  and 
loved  his  virtues.  His 
subjects  willingly  obeyed 
him  because  they  knew 
that  he  was  just.  Soon 
after  his  death  he  was 
made  a  saint — a  fitting  recognition  of  his 
preeminent  virtues. 

His  grandson,  Philip  the  Fair,  is  fa- 
mous for  his  skill  in  organizing  the  ad- 
ministration.     The   founda- 

tions  had  been  laid  by  PhiliP 
Augustus  and  Louis  IX,  but 

Philip  IV  completed  the  structure.     The 

results  of  his  work  are  the  basis  of  the 

present  administrative  system  in  France. 

The  government  was  centralized,  and  the 

power  was  taken  from  the  feudal  nobles  in  many  ways. 

Lawsuits  could  be  appealed  from  the  feudal  courts  to  the 

king's  court,  and  many  cases  could  be  tried  only  by  the  latter 

tribunal.     Philip's  most  famous  innovation  was  the  States- 


ST.  Louis. 


MARGUERITE  OF 
PROVENCE. 


FRANCE  (1108-1314)  213 

General,  in  which  all  classes  except  the  peasants  were  rep- 
resented. At  its  first  meeting  in  1302,  nobles,  clergy,  and 
citizens  were  summoned  to  assist  the  king ;  thus  the  im- 
portance of  the  third  estate  was  recognized,  and  its  aid  was 
sought  by  the  king. 

REFERENCES 

Adams:  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  311-331. 
Adams:  Growth  of  the  French  Nation,  pp.  73-103.  Hassall:  French 
People,  chap.  vii.  Emerton:  Medieval  Europe,  chap.  xii.  Tout: 
Empire  and  Papacy,  chaps,  xii,  xvii.  Lodge :  Close  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  pp.  43-62. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
England  (1135-1327) 

HEKEY  I  had  secured  from  the  barons  an  oath  to  recog- 
nize his  daughter  Matilda  as  his  successor,  but  after  his 
death  her  cousin  Stephen  obtained  the  crown, 

in  1135<  The  Scotch  kin&  and  many  English 
nobles  asserted  the  superior  rights  of  Matilda, 
and  a  civil  war  ensued  which  lasted  for  seventeen  years. 
During  this  time  the  king  lost  all  control  of  the  country, 
and  the  power  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  feudal  nobles. 
The  latter  engaged  in  many  private  wars  and  wasted  the 
kingdom  so  that  famines  followed  in  some  counties ;  they 
also  seized  the  property  of  private  citizens  and  used  torture 
to  extort  money  from  their  victims.  "  They  hanged  up 
men  by  the  feet  and  smoked  them  with  foul  smoke.  .  .  . 
They  put  knotted  strings  about  men's  heads  and  twisted 
the  strings  till  they  entered  the  brain.  .  .  .  Many  thousands 
they  starved."  This  period  of  anarchy  was  ended  by  the 
peace  of  Wallingford,  in  1153,  when  Stephen  was  recog- 
nized as  king  by  the  party  of  Matilda,  with  the  condition 
that  her  son  Henry  should  receive  the  crown  after  Stephen's 
death. 

The  following  year  Henry  IT  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

In  addition  to  England  he  ruled  over  Normandy,  Anjou, 

Maine,  and  Touraine,  which  he  had  inherited. 

dominions  of       By  his  marriage  with  Eleanor,  formerly  the  wife 

Henry  II,  of  L0mS  VII  of  France,  he  secured  Aquitaine. 

Thus  his  French  possessions  were  more  extensive  than  his 

English  kingdom,  and  for  a  time  there  was  a  possibility 

214 


ENGLAND  (1135-1327)  215 

that  England  would  be  merely  a  subject  country  ruled  by  a 
French  monarch.  The  danger  to  the  French  king  has  been 
discussed.  Fortunately  for  the  development  of  England, 
almost  all  of  these  foreign  possessions  were  lost  during  the 
reign  of  John.1 

In  the  British  islands,  on  the  other  hand,  the  posses- 
sions of  the  Angevin 2  kings  became  much  more  extensive. 
One  of  the  popes,  Adrian  IV,  is  said  to  have 
made  a  grant  of  Ireland  to  Henry.  Whether 
this  is  true  or  not,  the  latter  made  an  expedition  to  that 
island  in  1171,  and  during  a  brief  stay  received  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Irish  kings.  Probably  the  real  reason  for  his 
expedition  was  the  growing  power  of  Xorman  lords,  who, 
dissatisfied  with  his  rule,  had  left  England  and  were 
attempting  to  establish  independent  principalities  in  Ire- 
land. This  so-called  conquest  gave  the  English  kings  a 
claim  to  Ireland,  but  the  later  kings  paid  little  attention 
to  that  country,  and  the  real  conquest  and  incorporation 
did  not  take  place  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1558-1603. 

Henry  II  also  became  overlord  of  Wales  by  the  submis- 
sion of  the  Welsh  rulers.  The  overlordship  was  claimed  by 
the  succeeding  kings,  and  was  generally  recog- 
nized until  the  time  of  Edward  I.  But  the 
Welsh  were  constantly  plundering  the  English  border-lands 
and  joined  in  every  movement  against  the  king.  Llewellyn, 
Prince  of  Wales,  refused  for  some  years  to  do  homage  to 
Edward,  and  even  after  acknowledging  that  he  was  the 
king's  vassal,  made  war  upon  the  latter.  A  long  conflict 
followed,  in  which  the  Welsh,  aided  by  the  mountainous 
character  of  their  country,  made  a  stubborn  resistance,  but 
were  subjugated  in  1283.  In  the  following  year  Edward  II 
was  born  in  their  land  and  received  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Wales — which  is  still  borne  by  the  oldest  son  of  the  king  of 
England. 

1  See  page  210.  2  From  An jou,  the  home  of  Henry's  father. 


216  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

The  Angevin  kings  also  claimed  the  overlordship  of 
Scotland,  as  William  the  Conqueror  and  William  Kufus  had 
both  received  the  homage  of  the  Scottish  kings, 
and  in  1137  King  David  of  Scotland  had  aided 
Matilda  as  her  vassal.  The  Scottish  monarchs  did  homage 
to  Henry  II,  but  Richard  the  Lion-hearted  sold  his  rights 
as  overlord  when  he  needed  money  for  his  crusade.  On  the 
death  of  Margaret,  the  heiress  to  the  Scotch  throne,  in 
1290,  several  relatives  laid  claim  to  the  succession,  and  Ed- 
ward I  was  asked  to  decide  which  was  the  lawful  heir. 
He  asserted  the  right  of  overlordship,  which  Richard  had 
abandoned,  and  his  authority  was  recognized  by  most  of 
the  claimants  and  by  many  of  the  nobles.  John  Balliol 
was  made  king  by  Edward,  but  soon  became  irritated,  be- 
cause he  found  that  he  was  treated  merely  as  a  vassal  of 
the  English  monarch,  who  kept  the  effective  power  in  his 
own  hands.  Consequently  Balliol  revolted  in  1295  and  made 
an  alliance  with  the  French  king.  War  followed  in  1296 ; 
Balliol  was  captured,  the  country  was  conquered,  and  an 
English  governor  appointed.  In  fact,  Scotland  seemed  to 
be  incorporated  into  Edward's  possessions.  But  in  1297  the 
Scotch  revolted  again  under  William  Wallace ;  after  a  vic- 
tory at  Stirling,  a  defeat  at  Falkirk,  and  various  other  bat- 
tles, he  was  captured,  and  executed  in  1305.  The  next  year 
Robert  Bruce  headed  another  revolt.  The  death  of  Ed- 
ward I  in  1307,  and  the  weakness  of  Edward  II,  enabled 
Bruce  to  gain  the  mastery  of  almost  all  Scotland ;  and  his 
victory  at  Bannockburn,  in  1314,  practically  secured  the 
independence  of  Scotland,  which  was  recognized  by  the 
English  in  the  Treaty  of  Northampton,  1323.  The  English 
kings  made  some  attempts  later  to  regain  Scotland,  but 
these  were  of  little  consequence. 

William  the  Conqueror  had  favored  the  clergy  and  had 
added  to  the  power  of  the  Church  in  England,  but  he  was 
in  no  way  subservient  to  the  papacy.  He  refused  to  do 
homage  to  Gregory  VII ;  he  forbade  appeals  to  Rome ;  he 


ENGLAND  (1135-1327)  217 

allowed  no  papal  legate  to  land  in  the  kingdom  without 
his  permission ;  and  ecclesiastical  laws  had  to  receive  his 
Troubles  with  sanction  before  they  became  operative  in  Eng- 
the  Church)  land.  Henry  I  wished  to  keep  the  same  au- 
WilHamland  thority  and  refused  to  give  up  the  right  of 
Henry  I,  investing  church  officials ;  but  a  compromise 

was  reached  in  1107,  similar  to  that  arranged  by  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms.1  In  the  period  of  civil  war,  however, 
the  Church  obtained  great  power,  as  there  was  no  effective 
opposition  from  Stephen  or  Matilda. 

When  Henry  II  became  king  he  desired  to  regain  the 
authority  over  the  Church  which  William  had  wielded. 
Accordingly  he  appointed  as  archbishop  of 
Henry  II  and  Canterbury  his  chancellor  and  most  intimate 
friend,  Thomas  Becket,  but  the  latter  at  once 
became  the  champion  of  the  Church  and  attempted  to  assert 
his  freedom  from  royal  control.  Open  conflict  was  avoided, 
however,  until  the  king  promulgated  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon,  in  1164.  By  these  laws  appeals  to 
Eome  without  the  king's  permission  were  for- 
bidden ;  the  king's  consent  was  declared  to  be 
necessary  for  the  election  of  bishops  and  abbots ;  clerics  were 
in  certain  cases  to  be  punished  by  the  royal  courts ;  estates 
held  by  the  Church  were  to  pay  the-  same  dues  as  lay  fiefs ; 
and  a  villein  was  not  to  receive  ordination  without  his  lord's 
consent.  Becket  resisted  the  enforcement  of  these  laws  and 
was  forced  to  go  into  exile.  In  1170  he  returned  and  again 
provoked  the  anger  of  the  king.  Some  followers  of  Henry  ^ 
acting  upon  rash  words  which  he  uttered,  murdered  Thomas 
in  Canterbury  Cathedral.  The  general  indignation  of  the 
people  compelled  Henry,  who  regretted  that  his  anger  had 
led  to  the  murder,  to  rescind  the  constitutions  and  to  do 
penance  for  the  murder.  Later,  however,  he  succeeded  in 
obtaining  many  of  the  powers  which  he  desired. 

1  See  page  61. 


218  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

When  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  became  vacant 

in  1205,  during  John's  reign,  a  double  election  took  place, 

and  both  parties  appealed  to  the  Pope,  Inno- 

Innoctnt  III        C6nt  IIL      The  lattei>  S6t  aslde  b°th  candidates> 
one  of  whom  was  nominated  by  John,  and  had 

Stephen  Langton  elected.  As  John  refused  to  accept  Ste- 
phen, Innocent  placed  England  under  an  interdict  in  1208, 
and  the  following  year  excommunicated  the  king.  The 
latter  remained  obdurate,  and  was  threatened  with  depo- 
sition by  the  Pope  in  1213.  The  people  of  England  were 
so  incensed  by  John's  tyranny  that  he  was  compelled  to 
yield  to  the  Pope  in  order  to  keep  his  kingdom,  and  to  sub- 
mit to  the  most  humiliating  conditions,  acknowledging 
himself  to  be  a  papal  vassal,  receiving  Langton,  and  promis- 
ing to  pay  a  large  sum  each  year  as  a  recognition  of  the 
Pope's  overlordship. 

During  the  period  of  misrule  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III, 
the  popes  treated  England  as  a  papal  territory,  exacting 
Exactions  under  contrihutions  and  appointing  hundreds  of  for- 
Henrylll,  eigners  to  church  offices.  In  1252  Robert 
1216-1272,  Grosseteste,  the  bishop  of  Lincoln,  stated  that 
the  officials  nominated  by  the  Pope  were  enjoying  revenues 
in  England  which  were  three  times  as  great  as  the  king's 
income. 

Edward  I  endeavored  to  restrict  the  power  of  the  clergy. 

In  1279  he  made  a  law  forbidding  gifts  of  estates  to  the 

Church,  because  the  lands  which  it  held  were 

Policy  of 

Edward  I,  free  from  the  payment  of  feudal  dues.  He 
1272-1307.  refused  to  submit  to  the  authority  claimed  by 
Boniface  VIII,  in  1296.  Ten  years  later  he  forbade  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  to  pay  contributions  which  were  to  be 
used  outside  the  realm.  Without  openly  breaking  with 
the  Pope  he  did  all  in  his  power  to  lessen  the  papal  influ- 
ence and  authority  over  the  Church  in  England. 

When  Henry  II  became  king  in  1154,  he  set  about  the 
reestablishment  of  the  royal  authority,  which  had  been 


ENGLAND  (1135-1327) 

weakened  in  the  long  civil  war.  The  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon,  by  which  he  endeavored  to  restrict  the  powers 
of  the  Church,  have  been  discussed.  His  other  laws,  which 
Political  were  ca^L(i  assizes,  were  intended  to  lessen  the 

changes;  laws  authority  of  the  feudal  lords,  and  may  be 
of  Henry  II,  divided  into  two  general  classes.  Those  of  the 
first  class  built  up  a  national  army,  in  contrast  with  the 
feudal  levies  on  which  the  king  had  been  obliged  to  depend. 
Henry  secured  money  to  hire  mercenaries  by  levying  fre- 
quently a  tax  called  scutage,1  instead  of  calling  upon  the 
barons  to  perform  their  military  service.  This  resulted  in 
a  serious  loss  of  power  by  the  feudal  nobles.  In  1176  he 
required  that  all  earls,  barons,  knights,  freeholders,  and 
also  villeins,  who  wished  to  remain  in  the  realm,  should 
take  an  oath  of  fealty  to  him.  Thus  he  reenforced  the 
law  of  William  the  Conqueror,  which  made  all  subjects 
responsible  directly  to  the  king,  and  not  to  any  intermedi- 
ate lord.  In  1181,  by  the  Assize  of  Arms,  every  freeholder 
was  required  to  supply  himself  with  suitable  arms,  and  to 
serve  when  summoned;  thus  a  national  army  could  be 
raised  directly  by  the  king.  The  laws  of  the  second  class 
established  a  system  of  royal  courts,  which  left  comparatively 
little  power  to  baronial  courts.  Judges  were  sent  through- 
out the  country  to  try  cases ;  in  1176  their  jurisdiction  was 
extended,  and  they  were  given  fixed  circuits.  In  1178  five 
judges  were  appointed  to  hear  appeals  at  Westminster ;  from 
these  the  modern  Court  of  the  King's  Bench  developed. 

Henry  was  interested  mainly  in  his  continental  posses- 
sions, and  of  the  thirty-five  years  of  his  reign  he  spent  only 
Wh  the  ting-  thirteen  in  England.  Eichard  I,  who  succeeded 
ship  did  not  be"-  him,  1189-1199,  was  in  England  only  ten 
come  absolute.  months  in  all.  John's  tyranny  and  misrule, 
1199-1216,  alienated  every  one  ;  in  addition,  the  loss  of  his 
continental  possessions  in  1204,  the  defeat  at  Bouvines  in 

1  From  scutum,  a  shield. 


220  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

1214,  and  his  troubles  with  the  Pope,  weakened  him.  His 
successor,  Henry  III,  1216-1272,  was  unable  to  govern  the 
realm.  Consequently,  in  spite  of  the  energetic  measures 
of  Henry  II,  the  English  nobles  and  people  had  a  long 
period  in  which  to  develop  their  strength,  and  when  a  really 
capable  king,  Edward  I,  1272-1307,  came  to  the  throne,  the 
nation  had  secured  certain  rights  which  the  monarch  was 
obliged  to  respect. 

These  rights  had  been  obtained  mainly  by  the  struggle 
for  the  charters.  In  1215  the  estrangement  of  the  nation 
from  John  became  so  great  that  the  barons 
met  together,  and,  led  by  Stephen  Langton, 
compelled  the  king  to  sign  the  Great  Charter.  This  con- 
tained few,  if  any,  new  principles ;  but  was  merely  a  state- 
ment of  the  rights  formerly  enjoyed  by  the  subjects.  Free- 
dom of  election  to  church  offices  was  confirmed ;  feudal 
exactions  were  restricted ;  courts  were  to  be  held  at  fixed 
times  and  places ;  freemen  were  not  to  be  imprisoned  or 
punished  except  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  land. 
John  was  forced  to  dismiss  his  mercenaries,  and  to  consent 
to  the  appointment  of  a  commission  of  twenty-five — twenty- 
four  barons  and  the  mayor  of  London — who  should  see  that 
these  provisions  were  observed.  When  the  Pope  annulled 
the  charter  and  suspended  Langton,  the  barons  offered  the 
crown  to  Louis,  the  son  of  the  king  of  France.  John's 
death  saved  the  kingdom  for  his  son,  Henry  III,  whom  the 
nobles  preferred  to  a  foreign  ruler. 

For  eleven  years  during  Henry's  youth  the  government 
was  directed  well  by  the  king's  ministers.  But  they  had 
to  struggle  against  the  queen-mother's  foreign 
favorites,  who  received  many  appointments  in 
England.  From  1227  to  1258  Henry  ruled  in 
person,  and  aroused  opposition  from  his  subjects  by  his 
incapacity,  by  his  preference  for  foreigners,  and  by  his 
demands  for  money.  In  order  to  obtain  funds  he  confirmed 
the  charter  repeatedly,  but  never  kept  his  promises.  In 


ENGLAND  (1135-1327)  221 

1258,  when  Henry  demanded  an  enormous  sum  of  money 
for  the  Pope,  the  "  Mad  Parliament "  met,  headed  by  Simon 
de  Montfort,  brother-in-law  to  the  king  and  the  son  of 
Montfort,  the  leader  in  the  Albigensian  crusade.  This 
parliament  drew  up  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  which  ordered 
the  expulsion  of  all  foreigners,  and  transferred  the  govern- 
ment from  the  king  to  the  barons.  Dissensions,  however, 
soon  arose  among  the  latter,  and  the  king  was  able  to  re- 
gain his  authority  for  a  time.  As  he  did  not  observe  the 
Provisions,  Earl  Simon  took  up  arms  against  him ;  after  a 
few  months  a  truce  was  made,  but  the  war  soon  broke  out 
again.  Simon  was  slain  in  1265,  and  his  associates  sur- 
rendered in  the  following  year;  but  in  1267  Henry  was 
compelled  to  grant  almost  all  the  reforms  which  the  "  Mad 
Parliament "  had  asked. 

In  1265  Simon  had  called  together  a  parliament,  to 
which,  besides  the  clergy  and  the  nobles  who  were  of  his 
party,  representatives  of  the  shires,  and  burgh- 
Pariiament  ers  ^rom  certain  cities  and  boroughs,  had 
been  summoned.  He  took  this  step  in  order 
to  gain  support.  At  first  this  innovation  bore  little  fruit, 
but  in  1295,  when  Edward  I  needed  the  aid  of  all  his  sub- 
jects, he  summoned  the  "  Model  Parliament."  This  con- 
sisted of  tenants-in-chief,  representatives  of  all  classes  of 
the  clergy,  knights  of  the  shire,  and  two  citizens  from  each 
city  or  borough.  As  Edward  said  in  his  summons,  "  What 
affects  all  should  be  approved  by  all."  Thus  the  English 
Parliament  was  established  in  the  form  which  it  retained 
until  the  nineteenth  century.  Moreover,  Edward  was 
obliged,  in  1297,  to  agree  to  the  principle  .that  no  general 
contribution  should  be  exacted  from  his  vassals  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament. 

Edward  I  was  able  and  energetic,  a  great  contrast  to  his 
father  and  also  to  his  son.  His  wars,  his  resistance  to  the 
demands  of  the  Church,  and  his  "  Model  Parliament,"  have 
been  mentioned.  In  addition,  he  passed  a  long  series  of 


222  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

laws  which  diminished  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles,  and 
established  order  in  the  realm.  The  Assize  of  Arms  was 
renewed ;  the  process  of  subinfeudation  was 
Edward  I  restricted,  thus  preventing  a  multiplication  of 

feudal  duties ;  and  investigation  was  made  to 
see  by  what  right  nobles  exercised  their  judicial  and  adminis- 
trative authority ;  merchants  were  protected  and  commerce 
encouraged ;  liberal  charters  were  granted  to  towns,  and 
Magna  Charta  was  confirmed.  In  short,  on  the  one  hand, 
he  restricted  the  authority  of  the  barons;  on  the  other, 
he  fostered  the  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  merchants. 

Edward  II  was  a  weak  king,  and  his  reign  lessened  the 
royal  authority  which  his  father  had  done  so  much  to 
Misrule  of  establish.  For  a  few  years  he  governed  by  the 
Edward  II,  aid  of  his  favorite  Gaveston,  who  was  hated  by 
1307-1327,  the  people.  In  1311  the  barons  wrested  the 
power  from  Edward,  and  compelled  him  to  dismiss  his 
favorite.  In  the  following  year  Gaveston  returned,  and 
was  executed  by  the  barons,  who,  except  for  a  short  period, 
kept  the  power  until  1322.  Then  Edward  recovered  his 
authority,  and  ruled  with  his  new  favorites,  the  Despensers. 
In  1327  the  queen,  supporte4  by  the  nation,  compelled  the 
king  to  abdicate,  and  put  the  Despensers  to  death.  These 
twenty  years  of  misrule  enabled  the  barons,  who  were  the 
leaders  of  the  nation,  to  weaken  the  royal  authority  and 
assert  the  rights  of  the  subjects. 

Thus  the  course  of  events  in  these  centuries  led  to  re- 
sults in  England  which  differed  widely  from  those  attained 
in  France.  In  the  latter  country  the  Capetians, 
Contrast  with  a£  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  had 
little  authority  and  only  a  small  territory  un- 
der their  immediate  sway.  At  the  beginning  of  the  four- 
teenth the  French  kings  ruled  almost  all  of  France  with 
an  absolute  government.  In  England,  on  the  contrary,  at 
the  opening  of  this  period,  the  kings  were  absolute,  and 
had  enormous  territories  in  France  and  England.  In  1327 


ENGLAND  (1135-1327)  223 

their  French  estates,  with  a  few  exceptions,  had  been  lost, 
and  their  subjects  had  compelled  them  to  recognize  that 
the  royal  prerogatives  were  limited  by  the  rights  of  the 
people. 

REFERENCES 

Green :  History  of  the  English  People,  Book  III.  Stubbs :  Plan- 
tagenets,  chaps,  vi-xi.  Cheyney :  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  Eng- 
land, pp.  19-30.  Gardiner:  School  History  of  England,  pp.  165-171, 
185-231.  Adams:  Civilization  During  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  339-351. 
The  Magna  Charta  and  other  important  documents  can  be  found  in 
Translations  and  Reprints,  vol.  i,  No.  6 ;  in  Adams  and  Stephens : 
Select  Documents  of  English  Constitutional  History  (New  York,  1901); 
and  in  other  collections  of  sources. 


CHAPTER  XX 
The  Other  European  Nations 

THUS  far  Germany  with  Italy,  France  and  England, 
have  been  the  nations  which  have  occupied  the  chief  place 
in  the  discussion.  Now  it  is  necessary  to  trace 
natlonsT  ^e  grow*h  of  the  Christian  states  in  the  Span- 

ish peninsula,  the  destruction  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  and  the  rise  of  kingdoms  in  Eussia  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries.  Eor  all  of  these  states  were  important 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  were  destined  to  be  still 
more  important  in  the  future. 

The  Moors  had  never  conquered  the  whole  of  Spain. 
The  Christians  who  refused  to  submit  to  them  had  estab- 
lished strongholds  in  the  mountains  of  the 
in  Spain,  northwest,  and,  as  they  increased  in  number, 

had  gradually  reconquered  one  place  after 
another.  When  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  broke  up  in  1033 
into  seven  kingdoms,  the  Christians  held  nearly  one-third 
of  the  peninsula.  Leon,  Navarre,  Castile,  and  Aragon  were 
the  most  important  Christian  states.  Their  history  for  the 
succeeding  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  is  marked  by  con- 
stant struggles  with  one  another,  and  by  almost  incessant 
warfare  with  the  Mohammedan  powers.  At  first  Navarre, 
under  Sancho  the  Great,  970-1035,  was  supreme ;  but  when 
Sancho  died,  his  kingdom  was  divided  among  his  sons,  and 
Ferdinand  I,  who  ruled  over  Castile  and  Leon,  became  the 
chief  power  among  the  Christians. 

Under  Alfonso  VI,  who  died  in  1108,  the  great  period 
of  conquest  began.  Madrid  and  Toledo  were  captured.  It 


THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  225 

was  during  this  reign  that  the  Cid  became  famous.  The 
latter's  career  is  very  instructive  for  the  history  of  the 
period.  At  times  he  fought  for  his  sovereign 
Wars  with  Alfonso ;  when  it  served  his  purpose  he  allied 
himself  with  the  Moors,  .or  entered  into  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Aragon,  who  was  the  rival  of  Alfonso. 
He  was  a  soldier  of  fortune,  of  recognized  bravery  and 
great  ability ;  his  alliance  with  the  Moors  and  opposition 
to  his  monarch  did  not  tarnish  his  fame,  and  he  has  become 
the  legendary  hero  of  Spain. 

In  order  to  oppose  the  Christian  advance  the  Moors 
sought  aid  from  Africa.  The  Almoravides  entered  Spain 
in  1086,  and  sixty  years  later  were  followed  by 
^e  Almohades.  They,  in  turn,  became  masters 
of  Mohammedan  Spain,  but  without  checking 
permanently  the  advance  of  the  Christians.  Portugal,  which 
was  composed  of  lands  conquered  from  the  Moors,  was  made 
a  kingdom  shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the  Almohades,  and 
Lisbon  was  taken  in  1147.  During  this  time  many  crusa- 
ders took  part  in  the  Spanish  wars  against  the  infidel ;  but 
the  most  important  source  of  strength  was  found  in  the 
military  orders,  especially  that  of  Santiago,  which  were 
founded  in  the  twelfth  century.  Under  the  influence  of 
the  crusading  spirit  the  war  in  Spain  took  on  the  character 
of  a  religious  war.  Although  the  Christians  were  usually 
impeded  by  strife  between  the  different  kings,  in  1212  the 
monarchs  of  Castile,  Aragon,  and  Navarre  united  and  won 
the  great  victory  of  Las  Navas  de  Tolosa.  This  resulted 
in  the  permanent  triumph  of  Christianity,  and  within  fifty 
years  the  Moorish  possessions  were  confined  to  the  little 
kingdom  of  Granada. 

From  that  time  until  the  marriage  of  Fer- 
Conqnestof        dinand  and   Isabella,  in  1469,  the  Christians 

Granada,  '         . 

were  so  much  occupied  in  wars  with  one  an- 
other that  they  made  no  attempt  to  conquer  Granada.  Por- 
tugal became  separated  politically  from  the  rest  of  the  pen- 


THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  227 

asula.  Navarre  disintegrated ;  the  part  to  the  north  of  the 
'yrenees  became  French  territory,  the  southern  portion  was 
nnexed  by  its  more  powerful  neighbors.  In  1474  Isabella 
•ecame  queen  of  Castile,  and  in  1479  Ferdinand  became 
;ing  of  Aragon ;  their  united  kingdoms  composed  almost 
11  of  Spain.  In  1481  the  final  struggle  with  the  Moors 
)egan,  and  ten  years  later  the  conquest  of  Granada  was 
iompleted. 

The  religious  war,  which  may  be  called  a  perpetual  cru- 
sade, had  an  important  influence  upon  the  internal  develop- 
ment of  Spain.  The  clergy  became  more  influ- 
ential than  in  any  other  European  country. 
A  spirit  of  intolerance  was  aroused  which  led 
:o  the  establishment  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition  under  Fer- 
linand  and  Isabella,  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  in  1492, 
and  later  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors.  The  people  secured 
political  rights  in  Spain  much  earlier  than  in  any  other 
European  country.  In  1133  they  obtained  representation 
in  the  Cortes,  or  parliament,  of  Aragon,  and  in  1166  in  thpj 
of  Castile.  The  nobles  also  were  very  independent  of  the 
monarchs  until  the  union  of  Castile  and  Aragon  enabled 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  to  establish  their  authority  firmly 
at  the  expense  of  their  subjects.  The  latter  were  powerless 
to  resist,  because  the  nobles  and  the  people  had  always  been 
disunited  and  opposed  to  each  other. 

Alexius  Comnenus,  1081-1118,  reestablished  the  strength 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  and  also  secured  some  territory 

B  zantine  *n  ^a  ^J  tne  a^  °^  tne  crusaders.  But  the 
Empire,  establishment  of  the  latter  in  Syria  was  a  seri- 

1095-1204,  ous  bjow  to  the  prosperity  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire. The  trade  between  the  east  and  the  west,  which  had 
formerly  centered  at  Constantinople,  was  now  diverted  to 
the  Syrian  seaports.  In  order  to  retain  at  least  a  portion 
at  Constantinople,  special  privileges  were  given  to  the 
Venetians  and  Pisans,  who  established  trading  colonies 
there.  As  they  were  exempted  from  taxation  they  were 


228  MEDIEVAL   HISTORY 

enabled  to  undersell  the  Greek  merchants,  and  the  state 
was  deprived  of  almost  all  customs  duties.  The  extrava- 
gance of  Manuel  I,  1143-1180,  the  brutality  of  Androni- 
cus  I,  1183-1185,  and  the  weakness,  misrule,  and  lavish 
expenditure  of  Isaac  Angelus,  1185-1195,  brought  the  em- 
pire to  the  verge  of  ruin. 

The  crusaders  in  1204  had  comparatively  little  difficulty 
in  capturing  Constantinople  and  in  establishing  the  Latin 

Empire.  But  the  feudal  states  into  which  the 
1204-126L*'  empire  was  divided  had  no  unity,  and  the  Greek 

'subjects  were  hostile  to  their  masters.  Greek 
nobles  established  principalities  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  out- 
lying portions  of  the  old  empire.  The  Venetians,  who  had 
obtained  the  lion's  share  of  the  conquests,  were  the  only 
western  rulers  who  maintained  their  authority.  One- part 
after  another  of  the  Latin  Empire  was  reconquered  by 
Greek  rulers  until  finally,  in  1261,  Constantinople  itself  fell 
into  their  hands.  Some  Latin  nobles  retained  principalities 
for  a  generation  or  two,  and  the  Venetians  continued  to 
hold  the  islands  and  parts  of  the  coast.  The  emperors  of 
Constantinople  managed  to  keep  their  capital  for  nearly 

two  hundred  years  of  inglorious  rule.  This 
Empire,  was  due  partly  to  the  strength  of  the  city  and 

1261-1453.  partly  to  the  lack  of  any  continued  effort  by 
their  opponents.  Early  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  Otto- 
man Turks  began  their  attacks  upon  the  empire,  and  one 
city  after  another  was  wrested  from  its  grasp.  Finally, 
after  all  the  territory  outside  the  city  had  been  occupied  by 
the  Turks,  Constantinople  fell  into  their  hands  in  1453. 

The  early  history  of  Russia  is  very  obscure.    Its  Slavonic 
inhabitants  were  conquered  in  part  by  the  Northmen  under 

Eurik  in  the  latter  half  of  • the  ninth  century. 

The  foreign  rulers  maintained  themselves  at 
first  by  aid  from  the  Scandinavian  countries;  then  they 
turned  to  their  subjects,  the  Slavs,  for  support.  About 
the  year  1000  the  Christian  religion  was  introduced  by  the 


THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  229 

ruler  and  the  people  were  brought  under  the  civilizing  in- 
fluence of  the  Byzantine  Empire.  For  a  time  the  country 
was  united  under  an  able  ruler,  churches  were  built  in 
many  places,  trade  was  fostered,  and  Eussia  seemed  des- 
tined to  be  a  great  European  power.  But  on  the  death  of 
Jaroslav  the  Great,  1015-1044,  his  kingdom  was  split  into 
many  fragments  which  engaged  in  almost  constant  warfare 
with  one  another.  This  state  of  confusion  lasted  for  two 
centuries.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  period  Kussia  was 
attacked  on  the  west  and  northwest  by  the  religious  orders, 
the  Knights  of  the  Sword  and  the  Teutonic  order,  who  by 
their  conquests  shut  it  off  from  the  Baltic  and  from  Poland. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  Tartars  sub- 
jugated Eussia,  which  became  Asiatic  rather  than  European, 
and  for  three  centuries  remained  under  their  yoke.  As  it 
was  cut  off  from  Europe  and  from  contact  with  the  civiliza- 
tion which  led  to  the  Eenaissance  and  Eeformation,  ito 
history  followed  a  course  widely  different  from  that  of  any 
other  European  country. 

The  invasions  and  conquests  of  the  Northmen  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries  brought  the  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries into  connection  with  the  rest  of  Europe, 
kiit  ^e  inhalants  who  remained  at  home 
were  much  less  advanced  in  civilization  than 
their  kinsmen,  the  Normans,  who  settled  in  England, 
France,  or  Italy.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the  elev- 
enth century  when  Canute  the  Great,  1014-1035,  was  for 
a  time  king  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway.  After  his 
death  separate  kingdoms  were  formed  and  little  advance 
was  made  until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  countries 
became  thoroughly  Christianized  and  profited  by  the  grow- 
ing commerce  in  the  Baltic  Sea.  In  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  they  were  engaged  in  conflict  with  the 
Hanseatic  League.  For  a  short  period  at  the  beginning  of 
the  latter  century  the  three  countries  were  again  united ; 
for  Margaret,  who  chanced  to  secure  all  three  crowns,  per- 
16 


WOODEN  DOOR  OF  CHURCH  IN  ICELAND. 
(Tenth  or  eleventh  century. ) 


THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN  NATIONS  231 

suaded  the  nobles  to  agree  to  the  Union  of  Kalmar  in 
1397.  Soon,  however,  the  countries  again  separated. 
Their  importance  in  the  middle  ages  was  due  to  their  voy- 
ages and  colonization.  In  addition  to  their  conquest  in 
England  and  on  the  continent,  the  Norwegians  settled  Ice- 
land, which  was  soon  a  nourishing  although  little  developed 
state,  and  made  voyages  to  North  America  centuries  before 
the  discovery  by  Columbus. 

In  order  to  make  a  complete  survey  of  Europe  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  it  would  be  necessary  to  follow  the 
fortunes  of  the  Finns  and  Slavs,  as  well  as  the 
Other  nations,  gtronger  nati0ns.  The  most  important  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Finns  were  the  Hungarians  or  Magyars. 
They  invaded  Europe  in  the  ninth  century  as  nomads,  and 
by  their  devastations  terrorized  Germany  and  Italy.  De- 
feated by  Otto  the  Great  on  the  Lechfeld  in  955,  they 
ceased  their  depredations  for  a  time.  Under  St.  Stephen, 
995-1038,  they  were  converted  to  Christianity,  and  under 
his  successors  conquered  all  of  the  present  Hungary.  They 
still  retained  their  nomadic  habits  in  the  twelfth  century, 
rarely  dwelling  in  houses.  In  1222  the  nobles  secured 
from  the  king  the  Golden  Bull,  which  guaranteed  their 
privileges  and  in  some  points  resembled  Magna  Charta; 
but  the  people  obtained  no  rights,  and  were  held  in  bond- 
age by  the  nobles.  Besides  the  Eussian  Slavs,  other  Slavs 
settled  in  Bohemia  and  Poland.  The  former  country  came 
under  the  German  influence ;  the  king  of  Bohemia  in  the 
thirteenth  century  became  one  of  the  seven  imperial  elec- 
tors, and  his  capital  was  for  a  time  the  residence  of  tfce 
emperor.  Poland  was  the  scene  of  almost  continuous  civil 
war,  in  which  the  nobility  destroyed  the  power  of  the  king, 
only  to  fall  into  a  state  of  anarchy. 

With  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth,  the  medieval  period  ended  in  the 
most  progressive  countries.  In  the  others,  medieval  con- 
ditions continued  to  prevail  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter 


232  MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 

time.  The  fourteenth  century  is  of  far  less  interest  than 
the  thirteenth,  for,  although  substantial  progress  was  made, 

it  was  due  mainly  to  the  diffusion  of  the  ideas 
Close  of  the  an(j  activities  which  had  their  birth  in  an 

earlier  age.  Some  writers  have  characterized 
the  two  periods  by  saying  that  after  the  wonderful  advance 
of  the  thirteenth  century  the  nations  "  marked  time  "  dur- 
ing the  fourteenth.  Certainly  the  conditions  and  forces 
which  had  determined  the  course  of  events  in  the  middle 
ages  were  replaced  to  a  considerable  extent  by  other  inter- 
ests at  the  close  of  this  period.  The  more  important  mod- 
ern nations  of  Europe  were  well  established,  and  Christian- 
ity was  the  dominant  religion.  The  medieval  empire  had 
lost  its  power,  and  with  it  departed  the  dream  of  a  world- 
wide Christian  state.  The  papacy  was  soon  to  undergo 
a  captivity  at  Avignon,  from  which  it  would  emerge-  with 
views  and  powers  widely  different  from  those  held  by  In- 
nocent III.  Feudal  institutions  were  declining  rapidly, 
and  the  men  of  the  third  estate  were  rising  into  promi- 
nence. The  Renaissance  was  soon  to  dawn.  Europe  was 
on  the  verge  of  geographical  discoveries  which  would  re- 
veal a  far  larger  world,  and  would  culminate  at  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century  with  the  rounding  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  the  discovery  of  America ;  gunpowder  was 
to  revolutionize  the  art  of  war,  and  the  printing-press  was 
destined  to  diffuse  a  greater  degree  of  general  intelligence. 
Master  minds,  like  Roger  Bacon  and  Dante,  who  has  been 
well  styled  the  Janus-faced,  illustrate  the  character  of  the 
age,  although  they  were  far  in  advance  of  their  contempo- 
raries. In  most  respects,  they  were  thoroughly  medieval 
in  all  their  education  and  thoughts;  but  occasionally  they, 
had  intuitions  and  wrote  passages  instinct  with  the  modern 
spirit. 


THE  OTHER  EUROPEAN   NATIONS  233 


REFERENCES 

For  Spain,  Tout:  Empire  and  Papacy,  chap,  xx,  and  Lodge: 
Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  chap.  xx.  For  the  Byzantine  Empire, 
Tout:  chap,  xv,  and  Lodge,  chap.  xxi.  For  Russia,  Rambaud: 
History  of  Russia,  chaps,  iv,  v,  x.  Morfill :  Russia  (New  York,  1900), 
chaps,  ii,  iii,  iv.  For  the  thirteenth  century  in  general,  Harrison : 
Meaning  of  History,  chap.  v. 


INDEX 


Abbassides,  dynasty  of,  86,  87,  94. 

Abbot,  16,  27. 
<Abelard,  162,  164. 

Acre,  113, 115,  117. 

Adrian  IV,  189,  190,  215. 

Agnes  of  Meran,  210-211. 

Agriculture,  in  Arab  Spain,  89 ;  on 
manor,  151-152. 

Aids,  feudal,  48. 

Albigenses,  176-177. 

Albigensian  crusade,  177-178,  206, 
210. 

Alchemy,  91,  92. 
.  Alcuin,  10. 

Alemanni,  51. 

Alexander  III,  190. 

Alexius  Comnenus,  103-104,  106- 
107,  110,  227. 

Alfonso  VI,  224,  225. 

Alfonso  X,  198,  199. 

Alfred  the  Great,  75-78. 
'Algebra,  91,  92. 

Allodial  property,  42. 

Almohades,  176,  225. 

Almoravides,  225. 

Andalusia,  87. 
•  Andronicus  I,  228. 

Angelus,  prayer,  155. 

Angevin  kings,  215. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  75,  76,  78, 
79. 

Anglo-Saxons,  74-81. 


Anjou,  214. 

Antioch,  110,  111. 

Antisacerdotalists,  175. 

Aquitaine,  64,  207-208,  214. 

Arabian  Nights,  87,  88. 

Arabic  figures,  91. 

Arabs,  early,  5 ;  civilization,  87-92 ; 
invasions,  101.  See  Mohamme- 
dans. 

Aragon,  197,  224,  225,  227. 

Architecture,  Mohammedan,  91- 
92. 

Aristotle,  90. 

Army,  Carolingian,  15 ;  feudal.  47; 
Byzantine,  100. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  189. 

Arthur  of  Brittany,  210. 

Asia  Minor,  93,  94,  97,  101,  103, 
109, 110. 

Assizes,  219,  222. 

Athelney,  76. 

Athelstan,  78-79. 

Aucassin  and  Nicolette,  144,  147. 

Augustine,  St.,  rule,  133. 

Augustinian,  or  Austin  Canons, 
133. 

Austria,  199. 

Bagdad,  87-88,  90. 
Baldwin,  110,  111. 
Balliol,  216. 
Bannockburn,  216. 

235 


236 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Barbarossa,  197.    See  Frederick  I. 

Basil  II,  102. 

Bavaria,  191. 

Bavarians,  51. 

Bayard,  142. 

Bayeux  tapestry,  140. 

Becket,  Thomas,  208,  217. 

Bede,  78. 

Benedict  of  Nursia,  122,  123. 

Benefice,  41,  42. 

Beneficia,  189. 

Berbers,  92.     See  Moors. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux,    128,   129- 

131,  132,  186. 
Boethius,  78. 
Bohemia,  56,  191,  231. 
Bohemians,  52. 
Bohemond,  109,  110. 
Bologna  University,  165,  167. 
Boniface  VIII,  218. 
Bouvines,  194,  211. 
Brittany,  64,  67. 
Bruce,  Robert,  216. 
Brunanburh,  79. 
Bruno  of  Cologne,  52. 
Bruno,    founder    of    Carthusians, 

126,  128. 
Brunswick,  191. 
Bulgaria,  109. 
Bulgarians,  6,  101-102. 
Burgundy,  56,  61,  191. 
Byzantine    emperors,    table,   104- 

105. 
Byzantine    Empire,    95-105,  227- 

228,229;  services,  96-97. 

Caliph  of  Bagdad,  5,  6,  86-87,  92- 
94;  of  Cordova,  87;  three  ca- 
liphs, 93. 

Calixtus  II,  61. 

Camaldoli,  126- 

Canon  law,  175. 


Canons  Regular,  133-134. 

Canossa,  60. 

Canute,  80-81,  229. 

Capetian  kings,  67-72,  204-205, 
206,  222. 

Cardinals,  170. 

Carolingians,  4,  51,  66-68 ;  weak- 
ness of  later,  33 ;  genealogical 
table,  24. 

Carthusians,  126,  128. 

Castile,  224,  225,  227. 

Castles,  38,  135-139;  plan,  136; 
situation,  137;  walls  and  gate, 
137 ;  moat,  137 ;  drawbridge,  137 ; 
portcullis,  137;  donjon  and  keep, 
138. 

Cathari,  176. 

Celtic  language,  74. 

Chapters,  cathedral  and  Collegi- 
ate, 133. 

Charles  Martel,  6. 

Charles  the  Bald,  19,  20,  21,  64-65. 

Charles  the  Fat,  65,  66. 

Charles  the  Great,  4,  9-16,  28,  75, 
161,  187. 

Charles  the  Simple,  52,  65,  66,  67, 
79. 

Charles  of  Anjou,  197. 

Charles  IV  of  Germany,  198. 

Charter-house,  Chartreuse,  128. 

Chess,  143. 

Children's  crusade,  116-117. 

Chivalry,  141-143. 

Church,  councils,  2 ;  organization, 
2;  importance  in  shaping  civil- 
ization, 4;  connection  with, 
Franks,  4,  11 ;  medieval  concep- 
tion of,  25;  duties,  25;  jurisdic- 
tion, 28-29,  173-175;  means  of 
control,  30-31 ;  influence,  4,  31- 
32 ;  feudalism,  46-47 ;  condition, 
eleventh  century,  57-59 ;  wealth, 


INDEX 


237 


4,  11,  16,  58,  120,  132;  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries,  169- 
181.  See  Pope,  etc. 

Church  and  state,  172-173.  See 
Investiture  struggle. 

Cid,  225. 

Cistercians,  129-130,  132. 

City,  definition,  153. 

Clairvaux,  130. 

Clarendon,  constitutions  of,  217. 

Clermont,  council  of,  107,  108. 

Cluny,  122,  123-126, 129, 161 ;  con- 
gregation, 124. 

Colleges,  166-167. 

Commendation,  41. 

Commerce,  Mohammedan,  90;  Syr- 
ian, 111,  113;  during  crusades, 
119;  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  155-156 ;  Constanti- 
nople, 227-228. 

Commune,  157. 

Condottieri,  147. 

Conrad  I  of  Germany,  51 ;  II,  55, 
56;  III,  113,  131,  185,  186;  IV, 
196,  197,  198. 

Conradin,  197. 

Constantinople,  description,  95-98 ; 
siege  in  717,  6;  in  1204,  116; 
Northmen  at,  37 ;  fall,  228 ;  Latin 
empire,  116,  228. 

Cordova,  caliphate,224;  emirate, 87. 

Cortenuova,  196. 

Cortes,  227. 

Counts,  15. 

Court-fools,  143. 

Crusades,  106-121 ;  first,  109-111 ; 
second,  113 ;  third,  115 ;  fourth, 
115-116;  children's,  116;  Fred- 
erick I,  193 ;  Frederick  II,  195 ; 
Spanish,  227;  results,  118-121; 
influence  on  monasticism,  128. 

Curfew,  155. 


Damietta,  113. 

Danegeld,  80. 

Danelaw,  76. 

Danes,  34,  52,  75-80,  106. 

Dante,  196,  197,  232. 

"  Dark  Ages,"  160-161. 

David,  king  of  Scotland,  216. 

Decretum,  126,  175. 

Denmark,  202,  210,  211. 

Despensers,  222. 

Dialectics,  161,  162. 

Dispensations,  171. 

Doctors,  Arab,  89,  91,  113. 

Domain  land,  149;  royal,  65. 

Domesday  Book,  83. 

Dominic,  St.,  178-179. 

Dominicans,  178-180. 

Donations  of  Pippin  and  Charles,  4. 

Earls,  created  by  Canute,  81. 

Ecclesiastical  courts,  173-175. 

Edessa,  110,  111,  113. 

Edgar,  80. 

Edmund,  78. 

Edred,  78. 

Education,  at  Cluny,  123 ;  among 

Cistercians,    129 ;    Charles    the 

Great's  interest,  10 ;  schools  and 

universities,  160-168. 
Edward  the  Confessor,  80-82. 
Edward  the  Unconquered,  78. 
Edward   I  of  England,  183,  215, 

216,  218,  220,  221-222 ;  II,  215, 

216,  222. 
Egbert,  75. 

Einhard,  9,  12, 17,  23. 
Eleanor    of    Aquitaine,    207-208, 

214. 

Electoral  college,  198, 
Emma,  80,  81. 
England,  history  to  1135,   74-85; 

to  1327,  214-223. 


238 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Estate,  the  Third,  159,  184,  205, 

213. 

Ethelred,  80,  81. 
Eudes,  66. 
Excommunication,  30 ;  Henry  IV, 

60;  Frederick  II,  196. 

Fairs,  156. 

Falkirk,  216. 

Family  names,  120-121. 

Fealty,  47. 

Ferdinand  I,  224 ;  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  225,  227. 

Feudalism,  40-50 ;  in  England,  82- 
83 ;  group  in,  45. 

Fief,  41,  42-45, 120. 

Finns,  231. 

"Fist-law,"  197, 198. 

Flanders,  cities,  68-69. 

Fontenay,  19. 

France,  history  to  1108,  64-73 ;  to 
1314,  204-213. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  179. 

Franciscans,  178-180. 

Franconia,  51. 

Franks,  German  tribe,  4 ;  exhaus- 
tion, 17 ;  name  for  western  men, 
111-115,  117. 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa,  of  Ger- 
many, 115,  187-193 ;  II,  117, 178, 
193-197,  211;  of  Swabia,  185- 
186. 

Freemen,  149,  151. 

Fusion  of  Romans  and  Germans,  3. 

Gaveston,  222. 

Germans,  migrations,  2 ;  contribu- 
tions to  civilization,  3 ;  principle 
of  division,  18. 

Germany,  history  to  1122,  51-62; 
later  history,  184-202;  connec- 
tion with  Italy,  185 ;  kings,  62. 


Ghibellines,  186,  187. 

Gilds,  157. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  109,  110,  111. 

Godwin,  81,  82. 

Golden  Bull,  Germany,  198 ;  Hun- 
gary, 231. 

Grammar,  162. 

,Grammont,  126. 

Granada,  183,  225,  227. 

Gratian,  126,  175. 

Greek-fire,  100. 

Gregory  the  Great,  78. 

Gregory  VII,  59-61,  106,  131,  170, 
172,  216 ;  IX,  195-196. 

Grosseteste,  Robert,  218. 

Guelfs,  185,  186,  187, 191,  193,  203. 

Hamburg,  201,  202. 

Hanse,  201,  202. 

Hanseatic  League,  182,  201-202, 
229. 

Hapsburgs,  199,  201. 

Harold,  82. 

Haroun  al-Raschid,  87. 

Hastings,  82. 

Henry  I  of  England,  84,  130,  214, 
217;  II,  208,  214,  215,  216,  217, 
218,  219,  220:  III,  211,  218,  220- 
221. 

Henry  I  of  France,  71. 

Henry  I  of  Germany,  51 ;  II,  55- 
56;  III,  56,  71;  IV,  56-61;  V, 
61, 185,  186 ;  VI,  193,  210. 

Henry  of  Bavaria,  186. 

Henry  the  Lion,  191-192,  193. 

Heraldic  devices,  120. 

Hereditary  succession,  in  France, 
70 ;  in  Germany,  186 ;  in  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  98. 

Heresies,  175-177. 

Hildebrand,  59,  12$.  See  Gregory 
VII. 


INDEX 


239 


Hohenstaufens,  130,  185-197,  203 ; 

policy,  182,  195,  197. 
Hohenzollern,  202. 
Holy  Land,  108,  109,  113, 114. 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  187. 
Homage,  47. 
Honorius,  194-195. 
Hospitallers,  114. 
Hugh  Capet,  67,  69. 
Hugh,  Duke  of  France,  66-67,  79. 
Hundreds,  81. 
Hungarians,  34,  51,  52,  54,  102, 

231. 
Hungary,  56, 109,  231. 

Iceland,  231. 

Immunity,  41,  44-45. 

Ingeborg,  210-211. 

Innocent  II,  130;  III,  177,  193- 
194,218;  IV,  196.^ 

Inquisition,  178 ;  Spanish,  227. 

Interdict,  31 ;  on  France,  210 ;  on 
England,  218. 

Investiture  struggle,  59-62,  107, 
134, 185. 

Ireland,  215. 

Irene,  12. 

Isaac  Angelus,  228. 

Isabella,  225,  227. 

Islam,  5.  See  Arabs,  Moors,  Mo- 
hammedans. 

Italians  in  Syria,  114. 

Italy,  54-55,  56,  61,  64,  103,  187- 
191, 195-197. 

Jaroslav,  229. 

Jerusalem,  city,  108,  110,  111,  115, 

116 ;  kingdom,  111-115, 117. 
John,  king  of  England,  194,  208, 

210,  211,  218,  219-220. 
Jongleurs,  144. 
Jousts,  144. 


Judith,  wife  of  Lewis  the  Pious, 
19. 

Kalmar,  union  of,  231. 

King's  Bench,  court,  219. 

Kings  of  England,  table,  85; 
France,  73 ;  Jerusalem,  121. 

Knights,  occupations,  139;  educa- 
tion, 140-141;  duties,  142; 
amusements,  143-146;  prodigal- 
ity, 146. 

Knights  of  the  Sword,  229. 

Koran,  5,  91. 

Langton,  Stephen,  218,  220. 

Languedoc,  177, 182,  210. 

Largesse,  146. 

Las  Navas  de  Tolosa,  225. 

Latin  Empire,  Constantinople,  228. 

Lay  investiture,  59-62. 

Learning  of  Arabs,  90-92 ;  at  Con- 
stantinople, 96. 

Lech,  54, 102,  231. 

Legnano,  190. 

Lendit,  156. 

Leon,  224. 

Lewis,  the  German,  19,  20,  23,  65 ; 
the  Pious,  18-19.  See  Louis. 

Libraries  in  Arab  Spain,  90. 

Life  of  nobles,  135-147;  of  peo- 
ple, 148-159;  in  towns,  154-155; 
of  students,  167-168. 

Llewellyn,  215. 

Lombard  cities,  189-191,  193. 

Lombard  League,  190, 191, 196. 

Lombards,  4, 11. 

Lorraine,  52,  64,  71. 

Lothair,  emperor,  130, 185-186. 

Lothair,  son  of  Lewis  the  Pious, 
18, 19,  20,  21,  23. 

Louis  d'Outremer,  66-67 ;  the 
Stammerer,  65,  66. 


240 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Louis  VI  of  France,  130,  205,  207 ; 
VII,  113,  205,  207-208;  VIII, 
177,  205,  211,  220;  IX,  113,  117, 
205,  211-212. 

Lubeck,  191,  201,  202. 

Liineburg,  191. 

Macedonian  dynasty,  98,  101,  103, 
104-105. 

Mad  Parliament,  221. 

Magna  Charta,  211,  220,  222. 

Magyars.    See  Hungarians. 

Majorca,  89. 

Malta,  Knights  of,  114. 

Manicheans,  175-177. 

Manor,  149-150. 

Manuel  I,  228. 

Manufactures,  Arab,  89. 

Manzikert,  94,  103. 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  229,  231; 
of  Scotland,  216. 

Margrave,  title,  15 ;  of  Branden- 
burg, 198, 202. 

Matilda  of  England,  214,  217. 

Mercia,  75,  76. 

Merovingians,  4. 

Mersen,  capitulary,  38,  65. 

Migrations,  German,  2;  student, 
164-165. 

Milan,  190. 

Minorites,  179. 

Missi  dominici,  16,  17,  27. 

Model  Parliament,  221. 

Mohammed,  5,  86. 

Mohammedans,  5,  6,  86,  111,  113- 
114,  117.  See  Arabs. 

Monasteries,  services,  27-28 ;  in- 
crease, 122;  orders,  122-134;  in 
France,  126-128.  See  Cluny. 

Money,  use  during  the  crusades,  120. 

Monks,  27,  122-134.  See  Monas- 
teries. 


Moors,  6,  107,  224. 

Moslems,  114.   See  Mohammedans. 

Mosul,  92,  113.  • 

Naples,  kingdom,  197;  university, 

194. 

Navarre,  224,  225,  227. 
Nicaea,  109-110. 
Nicephorus  1, 101. 
Norbert,  133. 
Norman  conquest,  82-84. 
Normandy,   67-68,  206,  208,  210, 

214;   connection  with  England, 

80,84. 

Normans,  37,  103,  114,  189. 
Northmen,  34-37,  65,  66,  68, 102, 

228. 
Northumbria,  75,  76. 

Offa,  75. 

Ommiads,  86,  93. 

Orosius,  78. 

Otto  I,  51-55,  67,  79,  231;  II,  55; 

III,  55 ;  IV,  193-194,  211. 
Ottoman  Turks,  183,  228. 
Oxford,  167 ;  provisions  of,  221. 

Pages,  141. 

Papal  States,  4,  197. 

Paris,  siege,  66;  university,  162- 
167. 

Parliament,  221. 

Patarins,  176. 

Patriarchs,  2. 

Patzinaks,  104. 

Peace  of  God,  139-140. 

Peasants,  149-153. 

Penance,  30. 

Peter  Damiani,  126. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  108-109,  131. 

Philip  I  of  France,  72 ;  II,  Augus- 
tus, 115,  177,  194,  205,  208-211, 
212  ;  IV,  the  Fair,  212-213. 


INDEX 


241 


Philip  II  of  Germany,  193. 

Piacenza,  council,  107. 

Pippin,  4,  18. 

Plantagenets,  120. 

Podestd,  190. 

Poland,  56,  231. 

Poles,  52. 

Poor  Men  of  Lyons,  175. 

Popes,  power,  107,  124,   169-173; 

election,  169-170;  tables,  62-63, 

180-181.    See  Church. 
Portugal,  225. 
Preaching  friars,  179. 
Prebends,  133. 

Premonstratensians,  133-134, 
Prince  of  Wales,  215. 
Priors,  124. 

Privileges  of  students,  163-165. 
Prussia,  202. 

Quadrivium,  161-162. 
Quintaine,  142. 

Regular  clergy,  definition,  27. 

Relief,  48-49. 

Representative  assemblies,  3. 

Richard,  of  Cornwall,  198;  the 
Lion-hearted,  115,  193,  208,  210, 
216,  219. 

Robert,  the  Strong,  66 ;  II,  71. 

Robertian  family,  66. 

Roger  Bacon,  232. 

Roland,  144. 

Rollo,  37,  67-68. 

Roman  contribution  to  civiliza- 
tion, 3. 

Roman  Empire,  prestige,  12;  of  the 
German  nation,  55,  187. 

Roman  world,  unity,  1. 

Romuald,  126. 

Roncalian  diet,  189. 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  199. 


Rurik,  102,  228. 

Russia,  102,  183,  228-229. 

Rilthli,  oath,  201. 

Sagas,  36. 

St.  Brice's  day,  80. 

St.  John,  Knights  of,  114. 

Saladin,  115. 

Saucho  the  Great,  224. 

Santiago,  order,  225. 

Saracens,  33-34,  55. 

Sardinia,  93,  196. 

Saxons,  13,  51,  59. 

Saxony,  56,  57,  59, 191. 

Scandinavia,  34,  229,  231. 

Schools,  3,  160-162. 

Scotland,  216. 

Scutage,  219. 

Secular  clergy,  definition,  27. 

Seljuks,  93-94. 

Sempack,  201. 

Senlac,  82. 

Septimania,  64. 

Serfs,  46,  149-153;  emancipation, 

153. 

"Seven  liberal  arts,"  161-162. 
Shire-reeve,  81. 
|  Sicily,  93,  101,  191,  193,  194, 195, 

196,  197,  199. 
Simeon,  102. 
Simon    de    Montfort,  elder,  177; 

son,  221. 

Simony,  57-59,  124. 
Slaves,  149. 

Slavs,  34,  52,  101,  202,  228,  231. 
Spain,  87,  88-91,  107,  224-227. 
Spices,  119. 
Squires,  141. 
States-General,  212-213. 
Stephen,  of  England,  214,  217;  of 

Hungary,  126,  231. 
Strassburg,  oath,  20. 


242 


MEDIEVAL  HISTORY 


Studium,  163-165. 

Subinfeudation,  43. 

Suger,  207. 

Suzerain,  45. 

Swabians,  51. 

Swegen,  80. 

Swiss  Confederation,  182, 199-201. 

Tapestries,  140. 
Tartars,  229. 
Templars,  114,  131. 
Teutonic  order,  182,  202,  229. 
Thane,  76. 
Thanet,  75. 
Themes,  98. 

Thomas  Becket,  208,  217. 
Toulouse,  177-178,  206. 
Touraine,  214. 
Tournaments,  144-146. 
Tours,  battle  near,  6. 
Towns  and  cities,  153-158. 
Tripoli,  111. 
Trivium,  161-162. 
Troubadours,  143. 
Truce  of  God,  134-140, 174. 
Tunis,  117. 

Turks,  93-94,  103,  104,  107,  116, 
117, 183,  228. 

Universities,    163-168 ;    organiza- 
tion, 165;  curriculum,  166. 
Urban  II,  107-108,  131. 


Varangian  guard,  106. 
Vassal,  41-44,  46-48. 
Venetians,  115-116,  227,  228. 
Verdun,  treaty,  21,  51,  64. 
Vikings,  35-37. 
Villages,  149. 

Villefranche,  154. 

Villein,  46 ;  tenure,  48.    See  Serfs. 

Villeneuve,  154. 


Waiblingen,  186. 

Waldenses,  175. 

Wales,  75,  215. 

Wallace,  216. 

Wallingford,  peace,  214. 

Wardship,  49. 

Wedmore,  peace,  37,  76. 

Wessex,  75-79. 

William,  the  Conqueror,  71,  82-84, 

135,  216,  219;   Rufus,  84,  107, 

216. 

William  Tell,  201. 
Windmills,  118. 
Witenagemot,  81,  82. 
Wittelsbach,  191. 
Words  from  Arabic,  92. 
Worms,  concordat,  61,  217. 

Zangi,  113. 
Zara,  115-116, 


(12) 


THE  END 


14  DAY  USE 


LD  21-100w-6  '56 
(B9311slO)47( 


.General  Library 

University  of  Californu 

Berkeley 


53* 


M7 


' 


